Traditionally, nothing by mouth was considered to be mandatory in all cases, but gentle feeding by enteral feeding tube may help to restore motility by triggering the gut's normal feedback signals, so this is the recommended management initially. When the patient has severe, persistent signs that motility is completely disrupted, nasogastric suction and parenteral nutrition may be required until passage is restored. In such cases, continuing aggressive enteral feeding causes a risk of perforating the gut.

Several options are available in the case of paralytic ileus. Most treatment is supportive. If caused by medication, the offending agent is discontinued or reduced. Bowel movements may be stimulated by prescribing lactulose, erythromycin or, in severe cases that are thought to have a neurological component (such as Ogilvie's syndrome), neostigmine. There is also evidence from a systematic review of randomized controlled trials that chewing gum, as a form of 'sham feeding', may stimulate gastrointestinal motility in the post-operative period and reduce the duration of postoperative ileus.

If possible the underlying cause is corrected (e.g. replace electrolytes).

Prucalopride, pyridostigmine, metoclopramide, cisapride, and erythromycin may be used, but they have not been shown to have great efficacy. In such cases, treatment is aimed at managing the complications. Linaclotide is a new drug that received approval from Food and Drug Administration in August 2012 and looks promising in the treatment of chronic intestinal pseudo-obstruction, gastroparesis and inertia coli.

Intestinal stasis, which may lead to bacterial overgrowth and subsequently, diarrhea or malabsorption, is treated with antibiotics.

Nutritional deficiencies are treated by encouraging patients to avoid food high in fat and fibre, which are harder to digest and increase abdominal distention and discomfort, and have small, frequent meals (5–6 per day), focusing on liquids and soft food. Reducing intake of poorly absorbed sugar alcohols may be of benefit. Referral to an accredited dietitian is recommended. If dietary changes are unsuccessful in meeting nutritional requirements and stemming weight loss, enteral nutrition is used. Many patients eventually require parenteral nutrition.

Total parenteral nutrition (TPN) is a form of long-term nutritional treatment needed for patients that have severe pseudoobstruction. After a period of no improvement of intestinal function or motility the decision to start TPN will be made, and the surgical procedure to add a long-term, more permanent IV to administer TPN will occur. Types of IV catheters to be placed will be a PICC line or central line which include mediports, Broviac, or Hickman lines depending on how long the physicians believe the patient will require TPN. Patients that are deemed TPN dependent will require constant checkups to monitor the catheter is working properly, check liver enzyme levels and look for signs of blood infections, as catheter blockage, liver damage, and infections of catheters are the main complications associated with long term TPN use and can result in sepsis and/or additional surgeries if not properly monitored. TPN nutritional feeds are given over a period of several hours to all day infusions, and are a mixture of all the vitamins, minerals, and calories similar to what one would get eating orally daily as well as any other specific nutritional needs the patient has at the moment. TPN format is typically changed depending on loss/gain of weight and bloodwork results, and is specially formulated to meet each individual patient's needs.

Use of octreotide has been described.

Cannabis has long been known to limit or prevent nausea and vomiting from a variety of causes. This has led to extensive investigations that have revealed an important role for cannabinoids and their receptors in the regulation of nausea and emesis. With the discovery of the endocannabinoid system, novel ways to regulate both nausea and vomiting have been discovered that involve the production of endogenous cannabinoids acting centrally. The plant cannabis has been used in clinics for centuries, and has been known to be beneficial in a variety of gastrointestinal diseases, such as emesis, diarrhea, inflammatory bowel disease and intestinal pain. Moreover, modulation of the endogenous cannabinoid system in the gastrointestinal tract may provide a useful therapeutic target for gastrointestinal disorders. While some GI disorders may be controlled by diet and pharmaceutical medications, others are poorly moderated by conventional treatments. Symptoms of GI disorders often include cramping, abdominal pain, inflammation of the lining of the large and/or small intestine, chronic diarrhea, rectal bleeding and weight loss. Patients with these disorders frequently report using cannabis therapeutically.

In a 2012 animal study, cannabichromene was shown to normalize gastrointestinal hypermotility without reducing the transit time. The study notes that this result is of potential clinical interest, as the only drugs available for intestinal dysmotility are often associated with constipation.

Ileus is a cause of colic in horses due to functional obstruction of the intestines. It most commonly seen in horses postoperatively, especially following colic surgery. Horses experiencing ileus are at risk for gastric rupture due to rapid reflux build-up, and require intense medical management with frequent nasogastric intubation. Ileus may increase adhesion formation, because intestinal segments have more prolonged contact and intestinal distention causes serosal injury and ischemia. It is usually treated with aggressive fluid support, prokinetics, and anti-inflammatories.

Horses are withheld feed when colic signs are referable to gastrointestinal disease. In long-standing cases, parenteral nutrition may be instituted. Once clinical signs improve, the horse will slowly be re-fed (introduced back to its normal diet), while being carefully monitored for pain.

Endotoxemia is a serious complication of colic and warrants aggressive treatment. Endotoxin (lipopolysaccharide) is released from the cell wall of gram-negative bacteria when they die. Normally, endotoxin is prevented from entering systemic circulation by the barrier function of the intestinal mucosa, antibodies and enzymes which bind and neutralize it and, for the small amount that manages to enter the blood stream, removal by Kupffer cells in the liver. Endotoxemia occurs when there is an overgrowth and secondary die-off of gram negative bacteria, releasing mass quantities of endotoxin. This is especially common when the mucosal barrier is damaged, as with ischemia of the GI tract secondary to a strangulating lesion or displacement. Endotoxemia produces systemic effects such as cardiovascular shock, insulin resistance, and coagulation abnormalities.

Fluid support is essential to maintain blood pressure, often with the help of colloids or hypertonic saline. NSAIDs are commonly given to reduce systemic inflammation. However, they decrease the levels of certain prostaglandins that normally promote healing of the intestinal mucosa, which subsequently increases the amount of endotoxin absorbed. To counteract this, NSAIDs are sometimes administered with a lidocaine drip, which appears to reduce this particular negative effect. Flunixin may be used for this purpose at a dose lower than that used for analgesia, so can be safely given to a colicky horse without risking masking signs that the horse requires surgery. Other drugs that bind endotoxin, such as polymyxin B and Bio-Sponge, are also often used. Polymixin B prevents endotoxin from binding to inflammatory cells, but is potentially nephrotoxic, so should be used with caution in horses with azotemia, especially neonatal foals. Plasma may also be given with the intent of neutralizing endotoxin.

Laminitis is a major concern in horses suffering from endotoxemia. Ideally, prophylactic treatment should be provided to endotoxic horses, which includes the use of NSAIDs, DMSO, icing of the feet, and frog support. Horses are also sometimes administered heparin, which is thought to reduce the risk of laminitis by decreasing blood coagulability and thus blood clot formation in the capillaries of the foot.

Reducing opiate-based medication (when possible, tolerable, and safe; prescription medication changes should be done under the supervision of a physician), and adequate intake of liquids (water) and dietary fiber and daily exercise.

Secondary chronic intestinal pseudo-obstruction is managed by treating the underlying condition.

There is no cure for primary chronic intestinal pseudo-obstruction. It is important that nutrition and hydration is maintained, and pain relief is given. Drugs that increase the propulsive force of the intestines have been tried, as have different types of surgery.

Laparotomy for other forms of volvulus, especially anal volvulus.

The treatment of fecal impaction requires both the remedy of the impaction and treatment to prevent future recurrences. Decreased motility of the colon results in dry, hard stools that in the case of fecal impaction become compacted into a large, hard mass of stool that cannot be expelled from the rectum.

Various methods of treatment attempt to remove the impaction by softening the stool, lubricating the stool, or breaking it into pieces small enough for removal. Enemas and osmotic laxatives can be used to soften the stool by increasing the water content until it is soft enough to be expelled. Osmotic laxatives such as magnesium citrate work within minutes - 8 hours for onset of action, and even then they may not be sufficient to expel the stool.

Osmotic laxatives can cause cramping and even severe pain as the patient's attempts to evacuate the contents of the rectum are blocked by the fecal mass. Polyethylene glycol (PEG 3500) may be used to increase the water content of the stool without cramping; however, since it may take 24 to 48 hours for it to take effect, it is not well suited to cases where the impaction needs to be removed immediately due to risk of complications or severe pain. Enemas (such as hyperosmotic saline) and suppositories (such as glycerine suppositories) work by increasing water content and stimulating peristalsis to aid in expulsion, and both work much more quickly than oral laxatives.

Because enemas work in 2–15 minutes, they do not allow sufficient time for a large fecal mass to soften. Even if the enema is successful at dislodging the impacted stool, the impacted stool may remain too large to be expelled through the anal canal. Mineral oil enemas can assist by lubricating the stool for easier passage. In cases where enemas fail to remove the impaction, polyethylene glycol can be used to attempt to soften the mass over 24–48 hours, or if immediate removal of the mass is needed, manual disimpaction may be used. Manual disimpaction may be performed by lubricating the anus and using one gloved finger with a scoop-like motion to break up the fecal mass. Most often manual disimpaction is performed without general anaesthesia, although sedation may be used. In more involved procedures, general anaesthesia may be used, although the use of general anaesthesia increases the risk of damage to the anal sphincter. If all other treatments fail, surgery may be necessary.

Individuals who have had one fecal impaction are at high risk of future impactions. Therefore, preventative treatment should be instituted in patients following the removal of the mass. Increasing dietary fiber, increasing fluid intake, exercising daily, and attempting regularly to defecate every morning after eating should be promoted in all patients.

Often underlying medical conditions cause fecal impactions; these conditions should be treated to reduce the risk of future impactions. Many types of medications (most notably opioid pain medications, such as codeine) reduce motility of the colon, increasing the likelihood of fecal impactions. If possible, alternate medications should be prescribed that avoid the side effect of constipation.

Given that all opioids can cause constipation, it is recommended that any patient placed on opioid pain medications should be given medications to prevent constipation before it occurs. Daily medications can also be used to promote normal motility of the colon and soften stools. Daily use of laxatives or enemas should be avoided by most individuals as it can cause the loss of normal colon motility. However, for patients with chronic complications, daily medication under the direction of a physician may be needed.

Polyethylene glycol 3350 can be taken daily to soften the stools without the significant risk of adverse effects that are common with other laxatives. In particular, stimulant laxatives should not be used frequently because they can cause dependence in which an individual loses normal colon function and is unable to defecate without taking a laxative. Frequent use of osmotic laxatives should be avoided as well as they can cause electrolyte imbalances.

Some causes of bowel obstruction may resolve spontaneously; many require operative treatment. In adults, frequently the surgical intervention and the treatment of the causative lesion are required. In malignant large bowel obstruction, endoscopically placed self-expanding metal stents may be used to temporarily relieve the obstruction as a bridge to surgery, or as palliation. Diagnosis of the type of bowel obstruction is normally conducted through initial plain radiograph of the abdomen, luminal contrast studies, computed tomography scan, or ultrasonography prior to determining the best type of treatment.

Treatment for sigmoid volvulus may include sigmoidoscopy. If the mucosa of the sigmoid looks normal and pink, place a rectal tube for decompression, correct any fluid, electrolyte, cardiac, renal or pulmonary abnormalities and then take the person to the operating room for repair. If surgery is not performed, there is a high rate of recurrence.

For people with signs of sepsis or an abdominal catastrophe, immediate surgery and resection is advised.

In the management of small bowel obstructions, a commonly quoted surgical aphorism is: "never let the sun rise or set on small-bowel obstruction" because about 5.5% of small bowel obstructions are ultimately fatal if treatment is delayed. However improvements in radiological imaging of small bowel obstructions allow for confident distinction between simple obstructions, that can be treated conservatively, and obstructions that are surgical emergencies (volvulus, closed-loop obstructions, ischemic bowel, incarcerated hernias, etc.).

A small flexible tube (nasogastric tube) may be inserted through the nose into the stomach to help decompress the dilated bowel. This tube is uncomfortable but does relieve the abdominal cramps, distention, and vomiting. Intravenous therapy is utilized and the urine output is monitored with a catheter in the bladder.

Most people with SBO are initially managed conservatively because in many cases, the bowel will open up. Some adhesions loosen up and the obstruction resolves. However, when conservative management is undertaken, the patient is examined several times a day, and X-ray images are obtained to ensure that the individual is not getting clinically worse.

Conservative treatment involves insertion of a nasogastric tube, correction of dehydration and electrolyte abnormalities. Opioid pain relievers may be used for patients with severe pain. Antiemetics may be administered if the patient is vomiting. Adhesive obstructions often settle without surgery. If the obstruction is complete a surgery is usually required.

Most patients do improve with conservative care in 2–5 days. However, on some occasions, the cause of obstruction may be a cancer and in such cases, surgery is the only treatment. These individuals undergo surgery where the cause of SBO is removed. Individuals who have bowel resection or lysis of adhesions usually stay in the hospital a few more days until they are able to eat and walk.

Small bowel obstruction caused by Crohn's disease, peritoneal carcinomatosis, sclerosing peritonitis, radiation enteritis, and postpartum bowel obstruction are typically treated conservatively, i.e. without surgery.

Symptoms of short bowel syndrome are usually addressed with medication. These include:

- Anti-diarrheal medicine (e.g. loperamide, codeine)

- Vitamin, mineral supplements and L-glutamine powder mixed with water

- H2 blocker and proton pump inhibitors to reduce stomach acid

- Lactase supplement (to improve the bloating and diarrhoea associated with lactose intolerance)

In 2004, the USFDA approved a therapy that reduces the frequency and volume of total parenteral nutrition (TPN), comprising: NutreStore (oral solution of glutamine) and Zorbtive (growth hormone, of recombinant DNA origin, for injection) together with a specialized oral diet. In 2012, an advisory panel to the USFDA voted unanimously to approve for treatment of SBS the agent teduglutide, a glucagon-like peptide-2 analog developed by NPS Pharmaceuticals, who intend to market the agent in the United States under the brandname Gattex. Teduglutide had been previously approved for use in Europe and is marketed under the brand Revestive by Nycomed.

Surgical procedures to lengthen dilated bowel include the Bianchi procedure, where the bowel is cut in half and one end is sewn to the other, and a newer procedure called serial transverse enteroplasty (STEP), where the bowel is cut and stapled in a zigzag pattern. Heung Bae Kim, MD, and Tom Jaksic, MD, both of Children's Hospital Boston, devised the STEP procedure in the early 2000s. The procedure lengthens the bowel of children with SBS and may allow children to avoid the need for intestinal transplantation. As of June 2009, Kim and Jaksic have performed 18 STEP procedures. The Bianchi and STEP procedures are usually performed by pediatric surgeons at quaternary hospitals who specialize in small bowel surgery.

There is no cure for short bowel syndrome except transplant. In newborn infants, the 4-year survival rate on parenteral nutrition is approximately 70%. In newborn infants with less than 10% of expected intestinal length, 5 year survival is approximately 20%. Some studies suggest that much of the mortality is due to a complication of the total parenteral nutrition (TPN), especially chronic liver disease. Much hope is vested in Omegaven, a type of lipid TPN feed, in which recent case reports suggest the risk of liver disease is much lower.

Although promising, small intestine transplant has a mixed success rate, with postoperative mortality rate of up to 30%. One-year and 4-year survival rate are 90% and 60%, respectively.

Fecal vomiting, also called feculent vomiting and stercoraceous vomiting is a kind of vomiting wherein the material vomited is of fecal origin. It is a common symptom of gastrojejunocolic fistula and intestinal obstruction in the ileum. Fecal vomiting is often accompanied by an odor of feces on the breath and other gastrointestinal symptoms, including abdominal pain, abdominal distension, dehydration, and diarrhea. In severe cases of bowel obstruction or constipation (such as those related to Clozapine-treatment) fecal vomiting has been identified as a cause of death.

Fecal vomiting occurs when the bowel is obstructed for some reason, and intestinal contents cannot move normally. Peristaltic waves occur in an attempt to decompress the intestine, and the strong contractions of the intestinal muscles push the contents backwards through the pyloric sphincter into the stomach, where they are then vomited.

Fecal vomiting can also occur in cats.

Fecal vomiting does not include vomiting of the proximal small intestine contents, which commonly occurs during vomiting.

Distal or sigmoid, fecalomas can often be disimpacted digitally or by a catheter which carries a flow of disimpaction fluid (water or other solvent or lubricant). Surgical intervention in the form of sigmoid colectomy or proctocolectomy and ileostomy may be required only when all conservative measures of evacuation fail.

Proximal enteritis usually is managed medically. This includes nasogastric intubation every 1–2 hours to relieve gastric pressure secondary to reflux, which often produces to 2–10 L, as well as aggressive fluid support to maintain hydration and correct electrolyte imbalances. Maintaining hydration in these patients can be very challenging. In some cases, fluid support may actually increase reflux production, due to the decreased intravascular oncotic pressure from low total protein and albumin levels, leading to loss of much of these IV fluids into the intestinal lumen. These horses will often display dependent edema (edema that collects in locations based on gravity). Colloids such as plasma or Hetastarch may be needed to improve intravascular oncotic pressure, although they can be cost prohibitive for many owners. Reflux levels are monitored closely to help evaluate fluid losses, and horses recovering from DPJ show improved hydration with decreased reflux production and improved attitude.

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are commonly used for pain relief, reduction of inflammation, and for their anti-endotoxin effects, but care must be taken since they may produce gastrointestinal ulceration and damage the kidneys. Due to a suspected link to "Clostridial" infection, anti-microbials are often administered, usually penicillin or metronidazole. Aminoglycosides should be used with extreme caution due to the risk of nephrotoxicosis (damage to the kidney). The mucosa of the intestines is damaged with DPJ, often resulting in absorption of endotoxin and risking laminitis, so therapy to combat and treat endotoxemia is often employed. This includes treatment with drugs that counteract endotoxin such as Polymyxin B and Bio-Sponge, fluid support, and laminitis prevention such as icing of the feet. Prokinetic drugs such as lidocaine, erythromycin, metoclopramide, and bethanechol are often used to treat the ileus associated with the disease.

Horses are withheld food until reflux returns to less than 1–2 L of production every 4 hours, and gut sounds return, often requiring 3–7 days of therapy. Parenteral nutrition is often provided to horses that are withheld feed for greater than 3–4 days. It is suspected to improve healing and shorten the duration of the illness, since horses often become cachexic due to the protein losing enteropathy associated with this disease.

Surgery may need to be performed to rule out colic with similar presenting signs such as obstruction or strangulation, and in cases that are long-standing (> 7 days) to perform a resection and anastomosis of the diseased bowel. However, some horses have recovered with long-term medical support (up to 20 days).

Bacterial overgrowth is usually treated with a course of antibiotics although whether antibiotics should be a first line treatment is a matter of debate. Some experts recommend probiotics as first line therapy with antibiotics being reserved as a second line treatment for more severe cases of SIBO. Prokinetic drugs are other options but research in humans is limited. A variety of antibiotics, including tetracycline, amoxicillin-clavulanate, fluoroquinolones, metronidazole, neomycin, cephalexin, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, and nitazoxanide have been used; however, the best evidence is for the use of rifaximin.

A course of one week of antibiotics is usually sufficient to treat the condition. However, if the condition recurs, antibiotics can be given in a cyclical fashion in order to prevent tolerance. For example, antibiotics may be given for a week, followed by three weeks off antibiotics, followed by another week of treatment. Alternatively, the choice of antibiotic used can be cycled.

The condition that predisposed the patient to bacterial overgrowth should also be treated. For example, if the bacterial overgrowth is caused by chronic pancreatitis, the patient should be treated with coated pancreatic enzyme supplements.

Probiotics are bacterial preparations that alter the bacterial flora in the bowel to cause a beneficial effect. Animal research has demonstrated that probiotics have barrier enhancing, antibacterial, immune modulating and anti-inflammatory effects which may have a positive effect in the management of SIBO in humans. "Lactobacillus casei" has been found to be effective in improving breath hydrogen scores after 6 weeks of treatment presumably by suppressing levels of a small intestinal bacterial overgrowth of fermenting bacteria. The multi-strain preparation VSL#3 was found to be effective in suppressing SIBO. "Lactobacillus plantarum", "Lactobacillus acidophilus", and "Lactobacillus casei" have all demonstrated effectiveness in the treatment and management of SIBO. Conversely, "Lactobacillus fermentum" and "Saccharomyces boulardii" have been found to be ineffective. A combination of "Lactobacillus plantarum" and "Lactobacillus rhamnosus" has been found to be effective in suppressing bacterial overgrowth of abnormal gas producing organisms in the small intestine.

Probiotics are superior to antibiotics in the treatment of SIBO. A combination of probiotic strains has been found to produce better results than therapy with the antibiotic drug metronidazole and probiotics have been found to be effective in treating and preventing secondary lactase deficiency and small intestinal bacteria overgrowth in individuals suffering from post-infectious irritable bowel syndrome. Probiotics taken in uncomplicated cases of SIBO can usually result in the individual becoming symptom free. Probiotic therapy may need to be taken continuously to prevent the return of overgrowth of gas producing bacteria. A study by the probiotic yogurt producer Nestlé found that probiotic yogurt may also be effective in treating SIBO with evidence of reduced inflammation after 4 weeks of treatment.

An elemental diet taken for two weeks is an alternative to antibiotics for eliminating SIBO. An elemental diet works via providing nutrition for the individual while depriving the bacteria of a food source. Additional treatment options include the use of prokinetic drugs such as 5-HT4 receptor agonists or motilin agonists to extend the SIBO free period after treatment with an elemental diet or antibiotics. A diet void of certain foods that feed the bacteria can help alleviate the symptoms. For example, if the symptoms are caused by bacterial overgrowth feeding on indigestible carbohydrate rich foods, following a FODMAP restriction diet may help.

Horses may develop pharyngitis, laryngitis, or esophagitis secondary to indwelling nasogastric tube. Other complications include thrombophlebitis, laminitis (which subsequently reduces survival rate), and weight loss. Horses are also at increased risk of hepatic injury.

Survival rates for DPJ are 25–94%. Horses that survive the incident rarely have reoccurrence.

Constipation is usually easier to prevent than to treat. Following the relief of constipation, maintenance with adequate exercise, fluid intake, and high-fiber diet is recommended.

A limited number of causes that require urgent medical intervention or result in severe consequences.

The treatment of constipation should focus on the underlying cause if known. The National Institute of Health and Care Excellence (NICE) break constipation in adults into two categories - chronic constipation of unknown cause and constipation due to opiates.

In chronic constipation of unknown cause, the main treatment involves the increased intake of water and fiber (either dietary or as supplements). The routine use of laxatives is discouraged, as having bowel movements may come to be dependent upon their use. Enemas can be used to provide a form of mechanical stimulation. However, enemas are generally useful only for stool in the rectum, not in the intestinal tract.

Differentiation of DIOS from constipation is generally performed by unit specializing in the treatment of cystic fibrosis. Adequate hydration and an aggressive regimen of laxatives are essential for treatment and prevention of DIOS. Osmotic laxatives such as polyethylene glycol are preferred. Individuals prone to DIOS tend to be at risk for repeated episodes and often require maintenance therapy with pancreatic enzyme replacement, hydration and laxatives (if the symptoms are also mild).

Oral contrast instillation into the colon/ileum under radiological control has been found to reduce the need for surgical intervention.

Fecalith, also called a fecaloma or faecaloma, is an extreme form of fecal impaction, often characterized by calcification. The term fecalith literally means a "stone" made of feces (lith=stone). It is a hardening of feces into lumps of varying size and may occur anywhere in the intestinal tract but is typically found in the colon. It is also called appendicolith when it occurs in the appendix and is sometimes concomitant with appendicitis. They can also obstruct diverticula.

Some studies reported up to 80% of patients with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) have SIBO (using the hydrogen breath test). Subsequent studies demonstrated statistically significant reduction in IBS symptoms following therapy for SIBO.

There is a lack of consensus however, regarding the suggested link between IBS and SIBO. Other authors concluded that the abnormal breath results so common in IBS patients do not suggest SIBO, and state that "abnormal fermentation timing and dynamics of the breath test findings support a role for abnormal intestinal bacterial distribution in IBS." There is general consensus that breath tests are abnormal in IBS; however, the disagreement lies in whether this is representative of SIBO. More research is needed to clarifiy this possible link.

Treatment is directed largely towards management of underlying cause:

- Replacement of nutrients, electrolytes and fluid may be necessary. In severe deficiency, hospital admission may be required for nutritional support and detailed advice from dietitians. Use of enteral nutrition by naso-gastric or other feeding tubes may be able to provide sufficient nutritional supplementation. Tube placement may also be done by percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy, or surgical jejunostomy. In patients whose intestinal absorptive surface is severely limited from disease or surgery, long term total parenteral nutrition may be needed.

- Pancreatic enzymes are supplemented orally in pancreatic insufficiency.

- Dietary modification is important in some conditions:

- Gluten-free diet in coeliac disease.

- Lactose avoidance in lactose intolerance.

- Antibiotic therapy to treat Small Bowel Bacterial overgrowth.

- Cholestyramine or other bile acid sequestrants will help reducing diarrhoea in bile acid malabsorption.