The prevention of the complications mentioned above plays an important role in the discussion about the timing of the surgery. The general consensus is now to perform surgery in late infancy, i.e. between six and twelve months. In this time frame the efficacy of surgery is enhanced due to several reasons:

- The bone is still more malleable and can be remodelled relatively 'simply' by greenstick fractures of the bone. At approximately one year of age the bone has become more mineralized and brittle and needs to be fastened to the surrounding bone with sutures or an absorbable plate.

- Reshaping of the cranial vault most commonly means excision of the bones and adjustment of the shape. Replacement of the bones can leave 'gaps' which are readily re-ossified before the age of one year, but need bony filling thereafter.

The reason why most surgeons will not intervene until after the age of six months is the greater risk that blood loss poses before this age. If possible it is preferred to wait until after three months of age when the anaesthetic risks are decreased.

Surgery is not performed in early childhood in every country. In some countries surgical intervention can take place in the late teens.

It is important that families seek out a Pediatric Craniofacial Physician who has experience with craniosynostosis for proper diagnosis, surgical care, and followup.

Environmental factors refer for example to maternal smoking and the maternal exposure to amine-containing drugs. Several research groups have found evidence that these environmental factors are responsible for an increase in the risk of craniosynostosis, likely through effects on fibroblast growth factor receptor genes.

On the other hand, a recent evaluation of valproic acid (an anti-epilepticum), which has been implicated as a causative agent, has shown no association with craniosynostosis.

Certain medication (like amine-containing drugs) can increase the risk of craniosynostosis when taken during pregnancy, these are so-called teratogenic factors.

The major treatment is surgery for most babies. The type of surgery which they would undergo differs from age and strength they have. The main reason of doing the surgery is to alleviate pressure on the brain, and create a space for brain developing and growing. It would improve infant’s appearance.

The first one is Traditional surgery. During surgery, they make an incision in the baby's scalp and cranial bones, and reshape the portion of the skull. Sometimes plates and screws, often made of material that is absorbed over time, are used to hold the bones in place. Surgery, which is performed during general anesthesia, usually takes hours.

After surgery, your baby remains in the hospital for at least three days. Some children may require a second surgery later because, the craniosynostosis recurs. Also, children with facial deformities often require future surgeries to reshape their faces.

Another one is Endoscopic surgery. This less invasive form of surgery isn't an option for everyone. But in certain cases, the surgeon may use a lighted tube (endoscope) inserted through one or two small scalp incisions over the affected suture. The surgeon then opens the suture to enable your baby's brain to grow normally. Endoscopic surgery usually takes about an hour, causes less swelling and blood loss, and shortens the hospital stay, often to one day after surgery.

Surgery is needed to prevent the closing of the coronal sutures from damaging brain development. In particular, surgeries for the LeFort III or monobloc midface distraction osteogenesis which detaches the midface or the entire upper face, respectively, from the rest of the skull, are performed in order to reposition them in the correct plane. These surgeries are performed by both plastic and oral and maxillofacial (OMS) surgeons, often in collaboration.

Treatment is surgical with attention to form and volume. Surgery usually takes place before the age of one since it has been reported that the intellectual outcome is better.

In terms of epidemiology, Jackson–Weiss syndrome is a rare genetic disorder; the overall contribution of FGFR mutation to the condition is not clear.

Each child is different and it entirely depends on which sutures are fused and how it is affecting the child as to how it is treated. Some children have severe breathing issues due to shallow mid face and may require a tracheostomy. All should be treated at a specialist centre. Cranio bands are not used in the UK.

Surgery is typically used to prevent the closure of sutures of the skull from damaging the brain's development. Without surgery, blindness and mental retardation are typical outcomes. Craniofacial surgery is a discipline of both plastic surgery and oral and maxillofacial surgery (OMFS) . To move the orbits forward, craniofacial surgeons expose the skull and orbits and reshape the bone. To treat the midface deficiency, craniofacial surgeons can move the lower orbit and midface bones forward. For jaw surgery, either plastic surgeons or OMFS surgeons can perform these operations.

Crouzon patients tend to have multiple sutures involved, most specifically bilateral coronal craniosynostoses, and either open vault surgery or strip craniectomy (if child is under 6 months) can be performed. In the later scenario, a helmet is worn for several months following surgery.

Once treated for the cranial vault symptoms, Crouzon patients generally go on to live a normal lifespan.

To treat the trigonocephaly, expanding the distance between orbits using springs seems to work. It allows enough space for the brain to grow and it creates a normal horizontal axis of the orbits and supraorbital bar. The endoscopic surgery started to become popular since the early 90's, but it has some technical limitations (only strip cranictomy is possible). There have been few attempts to go beyond the limits.

Aesthetic outcomes of metopic surgery have been good. Surgery does not have a perfect outcome because there will most likely be minor irregularities. Sometimes reoperations are needed for the severe cases. Trying to hollow out the temporal, and the hypoterlorism are very hard to correct. The hypotelorism usually stays not corrected and in order to correct the temporal hollowing, a second operation is most likely needed.

The treatment of Muenke syndrome is focused on the correction of the abnormal skull shape and mirrors the treatment of coronal craniosynostosis. The abnormal growth patterns continue throughout the growing years; therefore, intervention, accurate diagnosis, and a customized, expertly carried-out treatment plan should be a primary concern. The treatment of Muenke syndrome is focused on correction of the abnormal skull shape and mirrors the treatment of non-syndromic coronal craniosynostosis. Although the timing of surgery can be highly individualized, surgical correction of the bicoronal craniosynostosis is most often done between 6 and 12 months of age. Surgery is usually performed through a scalp incision that lies concealed within the hair of the head. Your craniofacial surgeon will work in concert with a pediatric neurosurgeon in order to safely remove the bones of the skull. Then, the craniofacial surgeon reshapes and repositions those bones to give a more normal skull shape.

The physical abnormalities resulting from SCS are typically mild and only require a minor surgical procedure or no procedure at all. One of the common symptoms of SCS is the development of short (brachydactyly), webbed fingers and broad toes (syndactyly). These characteristics do not cause any problems to the function of the hands or feet, and thus, no medical procedure is required to fix the abnormalities, unless the patient requests it. Webbing of the fingers may affect the base of the fingers, resulting in delayed hand growth during childhood, but this contributes no functional impairments. Sometimes, individuals with SCS develop broad toes because the bones at the ends of the toes are duplicating themselves. This is especially seen in the big toe, but requires no surgical intervention because it doesn't negatively affect the overall function of the foot. Individuals with these toe abnormalities walk normally and can wear normal footwear.

In more severe cases, frequent surgeries and clinical monitoring are required throughout development. A child born with asymmetrical unilateral coronal synostosis should undergo cranioplasty within its first year of life in order to prevent increased intracranial pressure and to prevent progressive facial asymmetry. Cranioplasty is a surgical procedure to correct prematurely fused cranial bones. The surgery acts to reconstruct and reposition the bones and sutures in order to promote the most normal growth. Cranioplasty is necessary in order to continue to grow and is important for two main reasons. First of all, the skull needs to be able to accommodate the growing brain following childbirth, which it can't because the skull doesn't grow as fast as the brain as long as the sutures remain fused. This results in an increase in pressure surrounding the brain and inhibits the brain from growing, causing the individual to experience significant problems, and if left untreated can eventually lead to death. Secondly, cranioplasty may be required for appearance purposes. This is especially the case in individuals with asymmetrical unilateral coronal synostosis, which requires reconstructive surgery of the face and skull. If cranioplasty is not performed, especially in individuals with unilateral coronal synostosis, then facial asymmetry will get worse and worse over time, which is why cranioplasty should be performed as soon as possible.

Surgery may also be required in individuals with vision problems. Vision problems usually arise due to a lack of space in the eye orbit and skull because of the abnormal bone structure of the face. Decreased space may also lead to abnormal or missing tear ducts and nerve damage. Reconstructive surgery is usually required in order to increase cranial space, correct tear duct stenosis, and/or correct ptosis of the eyelids in order to prevent amblyopia (lazy eye).

Midfacial surgery may also be required during early childhood to correct respiratory problems, dental malocclusion, and swallowing difficulties. A cleft palate is also corrected with surgery, and may involve the use of tympanostomy tubes. If needed, an individual will undergo orthognathic treatment and/or orthodontic treatment after facial development is complete. Since hearing loss is frequently associated with SCS, it is recommended that audiology screening persist throughout childhood.

After cranial reconstructive surgery, a child may be required to wear a molding helmet or some other form of head protection until the cranial bones set into place. This typically takes about three months and depends on the child's age and the severity of the condition. Following recovery, individuals with SCS look and act completely normal, so no one would even be able to tell that they have SCS.

There is no standard treatment for the hand malformations in Apert due to the differences and severity in clinical manifestations in different patients. Every patient should therefore be individually approached and treated, aiming at an adequate balance between hand functionality and aesthetics.

However, some guidelines can be given depending on the severity of the deformities.

In general it is initially recommended to release the first and fourth interdigital spaces, thus releasing the border rays.

This makes it possible for the child to grasp things by hand, a very important function for the child's development. Later the second and third interdigital spaces have to be released.

Because there are three handtypes in Apert, all with their own deformities, they all need a different approach regarding their treatment:

- Type I hand usually needs only the interdigital web space release. First web release is rarely needed but often its deepening is necessary. Thumb clynodactyly correction will be needed.

- In type II hands it is recommended to release the first and fifth rays in the beginning, then the second and the third interdigital web spaces have to be freed. The clynodactyly of the thumb has to be corrected as well. The lengthening of the thumb phalanx may be needed, thus increasing the first web space. In both type I and type II, the recurrent syndactyly of the second web space will occur because of a pseudoepiphysis at the base of the index metacarpal. This should be corrected by later revisions.

- Type III hands are the most challenging to treat because of their complexity. First of all, it is advised to release the first and fourth webspace, thus converting it to type I hand. The treatment of macerations and nail-bed infections should also be done in the beginning. For increasing of the first web space, lengthening of the thumb can be done. It is suggested that in severe cases an amputation of the index finger should be considered. However, before making this decision, it is important to weigh the potential improvement to be achieved against the possible psychological problems of the child later due to the aesthetics of the hand. Later, the second and/or third interdigital web space should be released.

With growing of a child and respectively the hands, secondary revisions are needed to treat the contractures and to improve the aesthetics.

Saethre–Chotzen syndrome (SCS), also known as Acrocephalosyndactyly type III is a rare congenital disorder associated with craniosynostosis (premature closure of one or more of the sutures between the bones of the skull). This affects the shape of the head and face, resulting in a cone-shaped head and an asymmetrical face. Individuals with SCS also have droopy eyelids (ptosis), widely spaced eyes (hypertelorism), and minor birth defects of the hands and feet (syndactyly). In addition, individuals with more severe cases of SCS may have mild to moderate mental retardation or learning disabilities. Depending on the level of severity, some individuals with SCS may require some form of medical or surgical intervention. Most individuals with SCS live fairly normal lives, regardless of whether medical treatment is needed or not.

There are two less common types of McGillivray syndromes are: Metopic synostosis (trigonocephaly). The metopic suture runs from your baby's nose to the sagittal suture. Premature fusion gives the scalp a triangular appearance. Another one is Lambdoid synostosis (posterior plagiocephaly). This rare form of craniosynostosis involves the lambdoid suture, which runs across the skull near the back of the head. It may cause flattening of your baby's head on the affected side. A misshapen head doesn't always indicate craniosynostosis. For example, if the back of your baby's head appears flattened, it could be the result of birth trauma or your baby's spending too much time on his or her back. This condition is sometimes treated with a custom-fit helmet that helps mold your baby's head back into a normal position.

Aesthetic outcome of metopic synostosis surgery is persistently good with reoperation hazards below 20%. In 1981 Anderson advised "that craniofacial operations for synostosis should be as extensive as necessary" after a study of 107 cases of metopic and coronal synostosis. Surgery does not provide a 100% natural outcome, mostly there will be minor irregularities. Reoperations are usually performed on more severe cases (including syndromic metopic synostosis). The hypotelorism and temporal hollowing are the most difficult to correct: the hypotelorism usually remains under corrected and a second operation is often needed for correction of temporal hollowing.

Treatment for Jackson–Weiss syndrome can be done through surgery for some facial features and feet. Secondary complications such as hydrocephalus or cognitive impairment, can be averted via prompt surgery.

Oxycephaly is a type of cephalic disorder where the top of the skull is pointed or conical due to premature closure of the coronal suture plus any other suture, like the lambdoid, or it may be used to describe the premature fusion of all sutures. It should be differentiated from Crouzon syndrome. Oxycephaly is the most severe of the craniosynostoses.

Muenke syndrome, also known as FGFR3-related craniosynostosis, is a human specific condition characterized by the premature closure of certain bones of the skull during development, which affects the shape of the head and face. First described by Maximilian Muenke, the syndrome occurs in about 1 in 30,000 newborns. This condition accounts for an estimated 8 percent of all cases of craniosynostosis.

It is sometimes possible to correct the problem with surgery, though this has high failure rates for treatment of post-traumatic radioulnar synostosis.

Incidence of Crouzon syndrome is currently estimated to occur in 1.6 out of every 100,000 people. There is a greater frequency in families with a history of the disorder, but that doesn't mean that everyone in the family is affected (as referred to above).

It may be associated with:

- 8th cranial nerve lesion

- Optic nerve compression

- Mental retardation

- Syndactyly

Say–Neger syndrome is a rare X-linked genetic disorder that is mostly characterized as developmental delay. It is one of the rare causes of short stature. It is closely related with trigonocephaly (a misshapen forehead due to premature fusion of bones in the skull). People with Say–Meyer syndrome have impaired growth, deficits in motor skills development and mental state.

It is suggested that it is from a X-linked transmission.

Radioulnar synostosis is one of the more common failures of separation of parts of the upper limb. There are two general types: one is characterized by fusion of the radius and ulna at their proximal borders and the other is fused distal to the proximal radial epiphysis. Most cases are sporadic, congenital (due to a defect in longitudinal segmentation at the 7th week of development) and less often post-traumatic, bilateral in 60%, and more common in males. Familial cases in association with autosomal dominant transmission appear to be concentrated in certain geographic regions, such as Sicily.

The condition frequently is not noted until late childhood, as function may be normal, especially in unilateral cases. Increased wrist motion may compensate for the absent forearm motion. It has been suggested that individuals whose forearms are fixed in greater amounts of pronation (over 60 degrees) face more problems with function than those with around 20 degrees of fixation. Pain is generally not a problem, unless radial head dislocation should occur.

Most examples of radioulnar synostosis are isolated (non-syndromic). Syndromes that may be accompanied by radioulnar synostosis include X chromosome polyploidy (e.g., XXXY) and other chromosome disorders (e.g., 4p- syndrome, Williams syndrome), acrofacial dysostosis, Antley–Bixler syndrome, genitopatellar syndrome, Greig cephalopolysyndactyly syndrome, hereditary multiple osteochondromas (hereditary multiple exostoses), limb-body wall complex, and Nievergelt syndrome.

Craniosynostosis (from cranio, cranium; + syn, together; + ostosis relating to bone) is a condition in which one or more of the fibrous sutures in an infant skull prematurely fuses by turning into bone (ossification). Craniosynostosis has following kinds: scaphocephaly, trigonocephaly, plagiocephaly, anterior plagiocephaly, posterior plagiocephaly, brachycephaly, oxycephaly, pansynostosis.

Treatment for individuals with Dandy–Walker Syndrome generally consists of treating the associated problems, if needed.

A special tube (shunt) to reduce intracranial pressure may be placed inside the skull to control swelling. Endoscopic third ventriculostomy is also an option.

Treatment may also consist of various therapies such as occupational therapy, physiotherapy, speech therapy or specialized education. Services of a teacher of students with blindness/visual impairment may be helpful if the eyes are affected.

Tsukuhara syndrome is an infrequently occurring skeletal dysplasia characterised by a caudal synostosis of the vertebra at birth.

Hypotelorism is a medical condition in which there is an abnormally decreased distance between two organs or bodily parts, usually pertaining to eyes (orbits), also known as orbital hypotelorism.