In 1999, Sachdeo and colleagues at the University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey and the Robert Wood Johnson Medical School in New Brunswick reported that 33% of the patients in a group of patients taking topiramate experienced a minimum 50% reduction in seizures (specifically drop attacks and tonic–clonics), compared with 8% in the placebo group. It was also found to be effective as an adjunctive therapy in a review published by Drs. Edith Alva Moncayo and Antonio Ruiz Ruiz in March 2003.

Motte reported in 1997 that lamotrigine was effective in the treatment of LGS, with the most common side effect in the treatment group relative to placebo being colds or viral illnesses. Two years later, it was approved by Health Canada for adjunctive therapy in Lennox Gastaut in adults and children. The United States Food and Drug Administration approved it for that in August 1998.

Felbamate is indicated in the use of LGS in the event that everything else fails, and was found to be superior to placebo in controlling treatment resistant partial seizures and atonic seizures. However, it has been known to cause aplastic anemia and liver toxicity.

Seven anti-epileptic drugs are approved for use in cases of suspected primary generalized epilepsy:

- Felbamate

- Levetiracetam

- Zonisamide

- Topiramate

- Valproate

- Lamotrigine

- Perampanel

Valproate, a relatively old drug, is often considered the first-line treatment. It is highly effective, but its association with fetal malformations when taken in pregnancy limits its use in young women.

All anti-epileptic drugs (including the above) can be used in cases of partial seizures.

Seizures in cats are caused by various onsets. Cats can have reactive, primary (idiopathic) or secondary seizures. Idiopathic seizures are not as common in cats as in dogs however a recent study conducted showed that of 91 feline seizures, 25% were suspected to have idiopathic epilepsy. In the same group of 91 cats, 50% were secondary seizures and 20% reactive.

No high quality evidence has shown any drug very useful as of 2013. Rufinamide, lamotrigine, topiramate and felbamate may be useful.

A number of measures have been attempted to prevent seizures in those at risk. Following traumatic brain injury anticonvulsants decrease the risk of early seizures but not late seizures.

In those with a history of febrile seizures, medications (both antipyretics and anticonvulsants) have not been found effective for prevention. Some, in fact, may cause harm.

There is no clear evidence that antiepileptic drugs are effective or not effective at preventing seizures following a craniotomy, following subdural hematoma, after a stroke, or after subarachnoid haemorrhage, for both people who have had a previous seizure, and those who have not.

Many antiepileptic drugs are used for the management of canine epilepsy. Oral phenobarbital, in particular, and imepitoin are considered to be the most effective antiepileptic drugs and usually used as ‘first line’ treatment. Other anti-epileptics such as zonisamide, primidone, gabapentin, pregabalin, sodium valproate, felbamate and topiramate may also be effective and used in various combinations. A crucial part of the treatment of pets with epilepsy is owner education to ensure compliance and successful management.

Continuous prophylactic antiepileptic drug (AED) treatment may not be needed particularly for children with only 1-2 or brief seizures. This is probably best reserved for children whose seizures are unusually frequent, prolonged, distressing, or otherwise significantly interfering with the child’s life. There is no evidence of superiority of monotherapy with any particular common AED.

Autonomic status epilepticus in the acute stage needs thorough evaluation for proper diagnosis and assessment of the neurologic/autonomic state of the child. "Rescue" benzodiazepines are commonly used to terminate it. Aggressive treatment should be avoided because of the risk of iatrogenic complications, including cardiovascular arrest. There is some concern that intravenous lorazepam and/or diazepam may precipitate cardiovascular arrest. Early parental treatment is more effective than late emergency treatment. Buccal midazolam is probably the first choice medication for out of hospital termination of autonomic status epilepticus which should be administered as soon as the child shows evidence of onset of its habitual autonomic seizures.

Parental education about Panayiotopoulos syndrome is the cornerstone of correct management. The traumatizing, sometimes long-lasting effect on parents is significant particularly because autonomic seizures may last for many hours compounded by physicians’ uncertainty regarding diagnosis, management, and prognosis.

Most generalized epilepsy starts during childhood. While some patients outgrow their epilepsy during adolescence and no longer need medication, in others, the condition remains for life, thereby requiring lifelong medication and monitoring.

Deep brain stimulation of the anterior nuclei of the thalamus is approved for DRE in some countries in Europe, but has been and continues to only be used in a very few patients. After 5 years of DBS a seizure reduction of 69% and a 50%-responder rate of 68% was reported in a randomized-double blinded trial. The rate of serious device related events was 34% in this study.

Responsive neurostimulation (RNS) is approved for DRE in the USA and involves stimulation directly to 1 or 2 seizure foci when abnormal electrocorticographic activity is detected by the devices software. After 2 years of RNS a seizure reduction of 53% was reported in a randomized-double blinded trial as well as a rate of serious device related events of 2.5%.

Transcutaneous vagus nerve stimulation (tVNS) is approved for DRE in some European countries and involves externally stimulating the auricular branch of the vagus nerve in the ear. tVNS failed to demonstrate efficacy in a first randomized-double blinded trial: responder rates did not differ between active and control groups potentially indicating a placebo effect behind the 34% seizure reduction seen in the patients who completed the full follow-up period.

Though there is limited evidence, outcomes appear to be relatively poor with a review of outcome studies finding that two thirds of PNES patients continue to experience episodes and more than half are dependent on social security at three-year followup. This outcome data was obtained in a referral-based academic epilepsy center and loss to follow-up was considerable; the authors point out ways in which this may have biased their outcome data. Outcome was shown to be better in patients with higher IQ, social status, greater educational attainments, younger age of onset and diagnosis, attacks with less dramatic features, and fewer additional somatoform complaints.

Potentially sharp or dangerous objects should be moved from the area around a person experiencing a seizure, so that the individual is not hurt. After the seizure if the person is not fully conscious and alert, they should be placed in the recovery position. A seizure longer than five minutes is a medical emergency known as status epilepticus. Contrary to a common misconception, bystanders should not attempt to force objects into the mouth of the person suffering a seizure, as doing so may cause injury to the teeth and gums.

A modified Atkins diet describes the long term practice of the first phase of the popular Atkins diet the so-called induction phase to reduce seizures through ketosis. In this diet the fat content of the nutrition is slightly lower than in the ketogenic diet at around 60%, the protein content is around 30% and the carbohydrate content is around 10% rendering the diet less restrictive and more compatible with the daily life compared to the ketogenic diet. Several studies show that the modified Atkins diet produces a similar or slightly lower seizure reduction to the ketogenic diet. Some physicians, especially in the USA, recommend the modified Atkins diet because they assume that patients will adhere to it on the long-term because it is more compatible with daily life and the meals are more enjoyable. It has also been concluded in another study that the diet is well tolerated and effective in hard to treat childhood epilepsy.

Over the past decade or so, researchers have been attempting to discover less invasive, safer and more efficient technologies that enable surgeons to remove epileptogenic focal zones without causing any damage to neighboring cortical areas. One such technology that has emerged and has great promise, is the use of gamma knife radiosurgery to either excise a brain tumor or repair a vascular malformation.

In Gamma Knife radiosurgery, intersecting gamma radiation beams are applied directly to the tumor site or vascular malformation site that had been established using neuroimaging. Although each beam itself is not strong enough to damage brain tissue, when the beams interesect they are strong enough to destroy the specific brain tissue that is to be excised. This process is extremely efficient and entirely non-invasive and is therefore much safer than actual neurosurgery itself.

Recently researchers and surgeons alike have begun to use Gamma Knife radiosurgery to treat cases of epilepsy by removing tumors responsible for causing the seizures. The early success rates in being able to alleviate seizures seem to be similar to those of temporal resective surgery however Gamma Knife radiosurgery has less associated risk factors. Current research on this topic is aimed at improving the technique in order to increase success rates as well as developing non-invasive forms of physiologic monitoring in order to determine the epileptogenic focus conclusively.

There are several different ways to treat frontal lobe epileptic seizures, however, the most common form of treatment is through the use of anticonvulsant medications that help to prevent seizures from occurring. In some cases, however, when medications are ineffective, a neurologist may choose to operate on the patient in order to remove the focal area of the brain in which the seizures are occurring. Other treatments that can be administered to aid in reducing the occurrence of seizures include the implementation of a specific, regimented diet and/or the implantation of a vagus nerve stimulator.

Panayiotopoulos syndrome probably affects 13% of children aged 3 to 6 years who have had 1 or more afebrile seizures and 6% of such children in the 1- to 15-year age group. All races and both sexes are affected.

At the hospital, physicians follow standard protocol for managing seizures. Cluster seizures are generally controlled by benzodiazepines such as diazepam, midazolam, lorazepam or clonazepam. The use of oxygen is recommended in the United States, but in Europe it is only recommended in cases of prolonged epileptic status.

Antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) are used in most cases to control seizures, however, PCDH19 gene-related epilepsy is generally associated with early-onset development of drug resistant seizures. Existing data supports the use of “rational polypharmacy,” which consists of a step-wise addition of AEDs until a patient responds favorably or experiences intolerable adverse events. In general, as in other types of uncontrolled epilepsy, the use of drugs with different mechanisms of action appears to be more effective than combining drugs with similar mechanisms of action.

No currently marketed AEDs have been extensively studied in PCDH19 gene-related epilepsy and there is no established treatment strategy for girls diagnosed with PCDH19 gene-related epilepsy. Patients may respond well to treatment with levetiracetam and in cases of drug resistance, stiripentol, which is not approved in the U.S. but is available through the FDA Expanded Access IND process.

As of 2017, data on optimal treatment was limited. Therapies with hormones is the standard of care, namely adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH), or oral

corticosteroids such as prednisone. Vigabatrin is also a common consideration, though there is a risk of visual field loss with long term use. The high cost of ACTH leads doctors to avoid it in the US; higher dose prednisone appears to generate equivalent outcomes.

As of 2017 data from clinical trials of the ketogenic diet for treating infantile spams was inconsistent; most trials were as a second-line therapy after failure of drug treatment, and as of 2017 it had not been explored as a first line treatment in an adequately designed clinical trial.

No single cause of OS has been identified. In most cases, there is severe atrophy of both hemispheres of the brain. Less often, the root of the disorder is an underlying metabolic syndrome. Although it was initially published that no genetic connection had been established, several genes have since associated with Ohtahara syndrome. It can be associated with mutations in "ARX", "CDKL5", "SLC25A22", "STXBP1", "SPTAN1", "KCNQ2", "ARHGEF9", "PCDH19", "PNKP", "SCN2A", "PLCB1", "SCN8A", and likely others.

Treatment outlook is poor. Anticonvulsant drugs and glucocorticoid steroids may be used to try to control the seizures, but their effectiveness is limited. Most therapies are related to symptoms and day-to-day living.

The cause of FIRES is not known. It does not happen twice in the same family, but the medical community does not know if it is genetic. It happens in boys more than girls. After the initial status, life expectancy is not affected directly. Issues such as overdose of medications or infections at a food tube site are examples of things that would be secondary to the status.

Early myoclonic encephalopathy (EME) is an epilepsy syndrome where myoclonic seizures develop in the neonatal period. After several months, the seizure pattern may develop to infantile spasms (West syndrome). Various genetic and metabolic disorders are responsible. The seizures are resistant to treatment. The neurology is very abnormal and patients often do not live beyond one year.

Treatment varies according to the type and severity of the encephalopathy. Anticonvulsants may be prescribed to reduce or halt any seizures. Changes to diet and nutritional supplements may help some patients. In severe cases, dialysis or organ replacement surgery may be needed.

Sympathomimetic drugs can increase motivation, cognition, motor performance and alertness in patients with encephalopathy caused by brain injury, chronic infections, strokes, brain tumors.

Ohtahara syndrome (OS), also known as early infantile epileptic encephalopathy with burst-suppression (EIEE), is a progressive epileptic encephalopathy. The syndrome is outwardly characterized by tonic spasms and partial seizures, and receives its more elaborate name from the pattern of burst activity on an electroencephalogram (EEG). It is an extremely debilitating progressive neurological disorder, involving intractable seizures and severe mental retardation. No single cause has been identified, although in many cases structural brain damage is present.

It is not possible to make a generalised prognosis for development due to the variability of causes, as mentioned above, the differing types of symptoms and cause. Each case must be considered individually.

The prognosis for children with idiopathic West syndrome are mostly more positive than for those with the cryptogenic or symptomatic forms. Idiopathic cases are less likely to show signs of developmental problems before the attacks begin, the attacks can often be treated more easily and effectively and there is a lower relapse rate. Children with this form of the syndrome are less likely to go on to develop other forms of epilepsy; around two in every five children develop at the same rate as healthy children.

In other cases, however, treatment of West syndrome is relatively difficult and the results of therapy often dissatisfying; for children with symptomatic and cryptogenic West syndrome, the prognosis is generally not positive, especially when they prove resistant to therapy.

Statistically, 5 out of every 100 children with West syndrome do not survive beyond five years of age, in some cases due to the cause of the syndrome, in others for reasons related to their medication. Only less than half of all children can become entirely free from attacks with the help of medication. Statistics show that treatment produces a satisfactory result in around three out of ten cases, with only one in every 25 children's cognitive and motoric development developing more or less normally.

A large proportion (up to 90%) of children suffer severe physical and cognitive impairments, even when treatment for the attacks is successful. This is not usually because of the epileptic fits, but rather because of the causes behind them (cerebral anomalies or their location or degree of severity). Severe, frequent attacks can (further) damage the brain.

Permanent damage often associated with West syndrome in the literature include cognitive disabilities, learning difficulties and behavioural problems, cerebral palsy (up to 5 out of 10 children), psychological disorders and often autism (in around 3 out of 10 children). Once more, the cause of each individual case of West syndrome must be considered when debating cause and effect.

As many as 6 out of 10 children with West syndrome suffer from epilepsy later in life. Sometimes West syndrome turns into a focal or other generalised epilepsy. Around half of all children develop Lennox-Gastaut syndrome.

West syndrome is a triad of developmental delay, seizures termed infantile spasms, and EEG demonstrating a pattern termed hypsarrhythmia. Onset occurs between three months and two years, with peak onset between eight and 9 months. West syndrome may arise from idiopathic, symptomatic, or cryptogenic causes. The most common cause is tuberous sclerosis. The prognosis varies with the underlying cause. In general, most surviving patients remain with significant cognitive impairment and continuing seizures and may evolve to another eponymic syndrome, Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. It can be classified as idiopathic, syndromic, or cryptogenic depending on cause and can arise from both focal or generalized epileptic lesions.