A systematic review estimated that inactivity is responsible for 6% of the burden of disease from coronary heart disease worldwide. The authors estimated that 121,000 deaths from coronary heart disease could have been averted in Europe in 2008, if physical inactivity had been removed. A Cochrane review found some evidence that yoga has favourable effects on blood pressure and cholesterol, but studies included in this review were of low quality.

Blood pressure medication reduces cardiovascular disease in people at risk, irrespective of age, the baseline level of cardiovascular risk, or baseline blood pressure. The commonly-used drug regimens have similar efficacy in reducing the risk of all major cardiovascular events, although there may be differences between drugs in their ability to prevent specific outcomes. Larger reductions in blood pressure produce larger reductions in risk, and most people with high blood pressure require more than one drug to achieve adequate reduction in blood pressure.

Statins are effective in preventing further cardiovascular disease in people with a history of cardiovascular disease. As the event rate is higher in men than in women, the decrease in events is more easily seen in men than women. In those at risk, but without a history of cardiovascular disease (primary prevention), statins decrease the risk of death and combined fatal and non-fatal cardiovascular disease. A United States guideline recommends statins in those who have a 12% or greater risk of cardiovascular disease over the next ten years. Niacin, fibrates and CETP Inhibitors, while they may increase HDL cholesterol do not affect the risk of cardiovascular disease in those who are already on statins.

Anti-diabetic medication may reduce cardiovascular risk in people with Type 2 Diabetes, although evidence is not conclusive. A meta-analysis in 2009 including 27,049 participants and 2,370 major vascular events showed a 15% relative risk reduction in cardiovascular disease with more-intensive glucose lowering over an average follow-up period of 4.4 years, but an increased risk of major hypoglycemia.

Aspirin has been found to be of only modest benefit in those at low risk of heart disease as the risk of serious bleeding is almost equal to the benefit with respect to cardiovascular problems. In those at very low risk it is not recommended. The United States Preventive Services Task Force recommends against use of aspirin for prevention in women less than 55 and men less than 45 years old; however, in those who are older it is recommends in some individuals.

The use of vasoactive agents for people with pulmonary hypertension with left heart disease or hypoxemic lung diseases may cause harm and unnecessary expense.

Known environmental factors include certain infections during pregnancy such as Rubella, drugs (alcohol, hydantoin, lithium and thalidomide) and maternal illness (diabetes mellitus, phenylketonuria, and systemic lupus erythematosus).

Being overweight or obese increases the risk of congenital heart disease. Additionally, as maternal obesity increases, the risk of heart defects also increases. A distinct physiological mechanism has not been identified to explain the link between maternal obesity and CHD, but both prepregnancy folate deficiency and diabetes have been implicated in some studies.

Anomalous origin of the right coronary artery originating from the pulmonary trunk (ARCAPA) is a rare but potentially fatal anomaly. The goal of surgical therapy is establishment of a physiologic bi-coronary circulation.

The Registry has been enrolling new patients from participating institutions that are member of the Congenital Heart Surgeons' Society. Hospitals from across North America continue to join the study group and enroll patients. Over 140 patients with AAOCA have been enrolled by June 2011, making it the largest cohort ever assembled of this anomaly.

The cause of congenital heart disease may be genetic, environmental, or a combination of both.

The cause of heterotaxy is unknown.

The Ivemark Syndrome Association, which is based in Dorset,

is one of the organisations dedicated to helping sufferrers and funding research.

Probably, the most well-known teratogenic drug is thalidomide. It was developed near the end of the 1950s by Chemie Grűnenthal as a sleep inducing aid and antiemetic. Because of its ability to prevent nausea it was prescribed for pregnant women in almost 50 countries worldwide between 1956–1962. Until William McBride published the study leading to its withdrawal from the market at 1961, about 8- 10 000 severely malformed children were born. The most typical disorder induced by thalidomide were reductional deformities of the long bones of the extremities. Phocomelia otherwise a rare deformity, which therefore helped to recognise the teratogenic effect of the new drug. Among other malformations caused by thalidomide were those of ears, eyes, brain, kidney, heart, digestive and respiratory tract. 40% of the prenatally affected children died soon after birth. As thalidomide is used today as a treatment for multiple myeloma and leprosy, several births of affected children were described in spite of the strictly required use of contraception among female patients treated by it.

Vitamin A, or retinol, is the sole vitamin which is embryotoxic even in a therapeutic dose, for example in multivitamins, because its metabolite, the retinoic acid, plays an important role as a signal molecule in the development of several tisues and organs. Its natural precursor, the β-carotene, is considered safe, whereas the consumption of animal liver can lead to malformation, as the liver stores lipophile vitamins, including retinol. Isotretinoin (13-cis-retinoic-acid; brand name Roaccutane), vitamine A analog, which is often used to treat severe acne, is such a strong teratogen that just a single dose taken by a pregnant woman (even transdermally) may result in serious birth defects. Because of this effect, most countries have systems in place to ensure that it is not given to pregnant women, and that the patient is aware of how important it is to prevent pregnancy during and at least one month after treatment. Medical guidelines also suggest that pregnant women should limit vitamin A intake to about 700 μg/day, as it has teratogenic potential when consumed in excess. Vitamine A and similar substances can induce spontaneous abortions, premature births, defects of eyes (microphthalmia), ears, thymus, face deformities, neurological (hydrocephalus, microcephalia) and cardiovascular defects, as well as mental retardation.

Tetracycline, an antibiotic, should never be prescribed to women in the reproductive age or children, because of its negative impact on bone mineralization and teeth mineralization. The "tetracycline teeth" have brown or grey colour as a result of a defective development of both the dentine and the enamel of teeth.

Several anticonvulsants are known to be highly teratogenic. Phenytoin, also known as diphenylhydantoin, along with carbamazepine is responsible for the fetal hydantoin syndrome, which may typically include broad nose base, cleft lip and/or palate, microcephalia, nails and fingers hypoplasia, intrauterine growth restriction and mental retardation. Trimethadione taken during pregnancy is responsible for the fetal trimethadione syndrome, characterized by craniofacial, cardiovascular, renal and spine malformations, along with a delay in mental and physical development. Valproate has anti-folate effects, leading to neural tube closure-related defects such as spina bifida. Lower IQ and autism have recently also been reported as a result of intrauterine valproate exposure.

Hormonal contraception is considered as harmless for the embryo. Peterka and Novotná do however state that syntethic progestines used to prevent miscarriage in the past frequently caused masculinization of the outer reproductive organs of female newborns due to their androgenic activity. Diethylstilbestrol is a synthetic estrogen used from the 1940s to 1971 when the prenatal exposition has been linked to the clear-cell adenocarcinoma of the vagina. Following studies showed elevated risks for other tumors and congenital malformations of the sex organs for both sexes.

All cytostatics are strong teratogens, abortion is usually recommended when pregnancy is found during or before chemotherapy. Aminopterin, a cytostatic drug with anti-folate effect, was used during the 1950s and 1960s to induce therapeutic abortions. In some cases the abortion didn´t happen, but the newborns suffered a fetal aminopterin syndrome consisting of growth retardation, craniosynostosis, hydrocephalus, facial dismorphities, mental retardation and/or leg defomities

Although significant progress has been made in identifying the etiology of some birth defects, approximately 65% have no known or identifiable cause. These are referred to as sporadic, a term that implies an unknown cause, random occurrence regardless of maternal living conditions, and a low recurrence risk for future children. For 20-25% of anomalies there seems to be a "multifactorial" cause, meaning a complex interaction of multiple minor genetic anomalies with environmental risk factors. Another 10–13% of anomalies have a purely environmental cause (e.g. infections, illness, or drug abuse in the mother). Only 12–25% of anomalies have a purely genetic cause. Of these, the majority are chromosomal anomalies.

Anomalous left coronary artery from the pulmonary artery (ALCAPA or Bland-White-Garland syndrome or White-Garland syndrome) is a rare congenital anomaly in which the left coronary artery (LCA) branches off the pulmonary artery instead of the aortic sinus. After birth, the pressure in other coronary arteries (namely the RCA) will have a pressure that exceeds the LCA and collateral circulation will increase. This, ultimately, can lead to blood flowing from the RCA into the LCA (retrograde) and into the pulmonary artery, thus forming a left-to-right shunt.

The syndrome is named for Edward Franklin Bland, Paul Dudley White, and Joseph Garland.

Asplenia with cardiovascular anomalies, also known as Ivemark syndrome and right atrial isomerism, is an example of a heterotaxy syndrome. These uncommon congenital disorders are characterized by defects in the heart, spleen and paired organs such as the lungs and kidneys. Another name is "asplenia-cardiovascular defect-heterotaxy".

Right atrial isomerism is named for its discoverer, Swedish pathologist Biörn Ivemark.

Pulmonary vein stenosis is a rare cardiovascular disorder. It is recognized as being the stenosis of one or more of the four pulmonary veins that return blood from the lungs to the left atrium of the heart. In congenital cases, it is associated with poor prognosis and high mortality rate. In some people, pulmonary vein stenosis occurs after pulmonary vein ablation for the treatment of atrial fibrillation. Some recent research has indicated that it may be genetically linked in congenital cases.

The Canadian Cardiovascular Society (CCS) recommends surgical intervention for these indications:

- Limited exercise capacity (NYHA III-IV)

- Increasing heart size (cardiothoracic ratio greater than 65%)

- Important cyanosis (resting oxygen saturation less than 90% - level B)

- Severe tricuspid regurgitation with symptoms

- Transient ischemic attack or stroke

The CCS further recommends patients who require operation for Ebstein's anomaly should be operated on by congenital heart surgeons who have substantial specific experience and success with this operation. Every effort should be made to preserve the native tricuspid valve.

Ebstein's cardiophysiology typically presents as an (antidromic) AV reentrant tachycardia with associated pre-excitation. In this setting, the preferred medication treatment agent is procainamide. Since AV-blockade may promote conduction over the accessory pathway, drugs such as beta blockers, calcium channel blockers, and digoxin are contraindicated.

If atrial fibrillation with pre-excitation occurs, treatment options include procainamide, flecainide, propafenone, dofetilide, and ibutilide, since these medications slow conduction in the accessory pathway causing the tachycardia and should be administered before considering electrical cardioversion. Intravenous amiodarone may also convert atrial fibrillation and/or slow the ventricular response.

Taussig–Bing syndrome (after Helen B. Taussig and Richard Bing) is a cyanotic congenital heart defect in which the patient has both double outlet right ventricle (DORV) and subpulmonic ventricular septal defect (VSD).

In DORV, instead of the normal situation where blood from the left ventricle (LV) flows out to the aorta and blood from the right ventricle (RV) flows out to the pulmonary artery, both aorta and pulmonary artery are connected to the RV, and the only path for blood from the LV is across the VSD. When the VSD is subpulmonic (sitting just below the pulmonary artery), the LV blood then flows preferentially to the pulmonary artery. Then the RV blood, by default, flows mainly to the aorta.

The clinical manifestations of a Taussig-Bing anomaly, therefore, are much like those of dextro-Transposition of the great arteries (but the surgical repair is different). It can be corrected surgically also with the arterial switch operation (ASO).

It is managed with Rastelli procedure.

As the causes of local gigantism are varied, treatment depends on the particular condition. Treatment may range from antibiotics and other medical therapy, to surgery in order to correct the anatomical anomaly.

Complete vascular rings represent about 0.5-1% of all congenital cardiovascular malformations. The majority of these are double aortic arches.

There is no known gender preference, i.e. males and females are about equally affected. There is also no known ethnic or geographic disposition.

Associated cardiovascular anomalies are found in 10-15% of patients. These include:

- Atrial septal defect (ASD)

- Ventricular septal defect (VSD)

- Patent ductus arteriosus (PDA)

- Tetralogy of Fallot (ToF)

- Transposition of the great arteries (D-TGA)

Uhl's anomaly was first described in 1952 by Dr. Henry Uhl (1921–2009) upon examining one of his patients. It is a very rare congenital heart disease (less than 100 cases 1900–1993) with a partial or total loss of the myocardial muscle in the right ventricle.

Management of AOS is largely symptomatic and aimed at treating the various congenital anomalies present in the individual. When the scalp and/or cranial bone defects are severe, early surgical intervention with grafting is indicated.

After the surgery, some patients require intubation and mechanical ventilation for several days to allow adequate tracheal toilet, but most patients can have the tubes removed soon after the surgery. The obstructive airway symptoms may be worse in the first postoperative weeks. Only a few patients have immediate relief of stridor, but many obtain immediate relief of problems with swallowing (dysphagia). After extubation, it might be necessary to maintain positive airway pressure by appropriate flows of a humidified oxygen/air mixture.

There is no known specific treatment for this condition. Management is supportive.

Treatment for brain AVMs can be symptomatic, and patients should be followed by a neurologist for any seizures, headaches, or focal neurologic deficits. AVM-specific treatment may also involve endovascular embolization, neurosurgery or radiosurgery.

Embolization, that is, cutting off the blood supply to the AVM with coils, particles, acrylates, or polymers introduced by a radiographically guided catheter, may be used in addition to neurosurgery or radiosurgery, but is rarely successful in isolation except in smaller AVMs. Gamma knife may also be used.

Heart valve dysplasia is a congenital heart defect which affects the aortic, pulmonary, mitral, and tricuspid heart valves. Dysplasia of the mitral and tricuspid valves can cause leakage of blood or stenosis.

Dysplasia of the mitral and tricuspid valves - also known as the atrioventricular (AV) valves - can appear as thickened, shortened, or notched valves. The chordae tendinae can be fused or thickened. The papillary muscles can be enlarged or atrophied. The cause is unknown, but genetics play a large role. Dogs and cats with tricuspid valve dysplasia often also have an open foramen ovale, an atrial septal defect, or inflammation of the right atrial epicardium. In dogs, tricuspid valve dysplasia can be similar to Ebstein's anomaly in humans.

Mitral valve stenosis is one of the most common congenital heart defects in cats. In dogs, it is most commonly found in Great Danes, German Shepherd Dogs, Bull Terriers, Golden Retrievers, Newfoundlands, and Mastiffs. Tricuspid valve dysplasia is most common in the Old English Sheepdog, German Shepherd Dog, Weimaraner, Labrador Retriever, Great Pyrenees, and sometimes the Papillon. It is inherited in the Labrador Retriever.

The disease and symptoms are similar to progression of acquired valve disease in older dogs. Valve leakage leads to heart enlargement, arrhythmias, and congestive heart failure. Heart valve dysplasia can be tolerated for years or progress to heart failure in the first year of life. Diagnosis is with an echocardiogram. The prognosis is poor with significant heart enlargement.

Children with CHARGE syndrome will vary greatly in their abilities in the classroom: some may need little support, while some may require full-time support and individualized programs.

Taking each of the various affected body systems into account is vital to the success of the child in the educational setting.

An important step in dealing with abnormal behavior is understanding why it is occurring and helping the child learn more appropriate methods of communicating. Before a child reaches age 18 (or the age of maturity in their country) doctors and specialists need to be found that will follow the individual in adulthood.

The overall prognosis is excellent in most cases. Most children with Adams–Oliver syndrome can likely expect to have a normal life span. However, individuals with more severe scalp and cranial defects may experience complications such as hemorrhage and meningitis, leading to long-term disability.