Initial treatment is aimed at providing symptomatic relief. Benzodiazepines are the first line of treatment, and high doses are often required. A test dose of intramuscular lorazepam will often result in marked improvement within half an hour. In France, zolpidem has also been used in diagnosis, and response may occur within the same time period. Ultimately the underlying cause needs to be treated.

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is an effective treatment for catatonia. Antipsychotics should be used with care as they can worsen catatonia and are the cause of neuroleptic malignant syndrome, a dangerous condition that can mimic catatonia and requires immediate discontinuation of the antipsychotic.

Excessive glutamate activity is believed to be involved in catatonia; when first-line treatment options fail, NMDA antagonists such as amantadine or memantine are used. Amantadine may have an increased incidence of tolerance with prolonged use and can cause psychosis, due to its additional effects on the dopamine system. Memantine has a more targeted pharmacological profile for the glutamate system, reduced incidence of psychosis and may therefore be preferred for individuals who cannot tolerate amantadine. Topiramate is another treatment option for resistant catatonia; it produces its therapeutic effects by producing glutamate antagonism via modulation of AMPA receptors.

Catatonia is a state of psycho-motor immobility and behavioral abnormality manifested by stupor. It was first described in 1874 by Karl Ludwig Kahlbaum, in ("Catatonia or Tension Insanity").

Though catatonia has historically been related to schizophrenia (catatonic schizophrenia), it is now known that catatonic symptoms are nonspecific and may be observed in other mental disorders and neurological conditions. In the fifth edition of the "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders" (DSM), catatonia is not recognized as a separate disorder, but is associated with psychiatric conditions such as schizophrenia (catatonic type), bipolar disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, depression and other mental disorders, narcolepsy, as well as drug abuse or overdose (or both). It may also be seen in many medical disorders including infections (such as encephalitis), autoimmune disorders, focal neurologic lesions (including strokes), metabolic disturbances, alcohol withdrawal and abrupt or overly rapid benzodiazepine withdrawal. In the fifth edition of the DSM, it is written that a variety of medical conditions may cause catatonia, especially neurological conditions: encephalitis, cerebrovascular disease, neoplasms, head injury. Moreover, metabolic conditions: homocystinuria, diabetic ketoacidosis, hepatic encephalopathy, hypercalcaemia.

It can be an adverse reaction to prescribed medication. It bears similarity to conditions such as encephalitis lethargica and neuroleptic malignant syndrome. There are a variety of treatments available; benzodiazepines are a first-line treatment strategy. Electroconvulsive therapy is also sometimes used. There is growing evidence for the effectiveness of NMDA receptor antagonists for benzodiazepine-resistant catatonia. Antipsychotics are sometimes employed but require caution as they can worsen symptoms and have serious adverse effects.

Waxy flexibility is a psychomotor symptom of catatonia as associated with schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, or other mental disorders which leads to a decreased response to stimuli and a tendency to remain in an immobile posture. Attempts to reposition the patient are met by "slight, even resistance", and after being repositioned the patient will typically remain in the new position. Waxy flexibility rarely occurs in cases of delirium. The presence of waxy flexibility along with at least two other catatonic symptoms such as stupor or negativism are enough to warrant a diagnosis of catatonia.

For instance, if one were to move the arm of someone with waxy flexibility, they would keep their arm where one moved it until it was moved again, as if it were made from wax. Further alteration of an individual's posture is similar to bending a candle. Although waxy flexibility has historically been linked to schizophrenia, there are also other disorders which it may be associated with, for example, mood disorder with catatonic behaviour.

Electroconvulsive therapy is often used as a treatment for catatonia. A study has found that catatonic patients suffering from waxy flexibility responded faster to electroconvulsive therapy, compared to patients with different catatonic symptoms.

The evidence for the effectiveness of early interventions to prevent psychosis appeared inconclusive. Whilst early intervention in those with a psychotic episode might improve short term outcomes, little benefit was seen from these measures after five years. However, there is evidence that cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) may reduce the risk of becoming psychotic in those at high risk, and in 2014 the UK National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) recommended preventive CBT for people at risk of psychosis.

The treatment of psychosis depends on the specific diagnosis (such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder or substance intoxication). The first-line psychiatric treatment for many psychotic disorders is antipsychotic medication, which can reduce the positive symptoms of psychosis in about 7 to 14 days.

The choice of which antipsychotic to use is based on benefits, risks, and costs. It is debatable whether, as a class, typical or atypical antipsychotics are better. Tentative evidence supports that amisulpride, olanzapine, risperidone and clozapine may be more effective for positive symptoms but result in more side effects. Typical antipsychotics have equal drop-out and symptom relapse rates to atypicals when used at low to moderate dosages. There is a good response in 40–50%, a partial response in 30–40%, and treatment resistance (failure of symptoms to respond satisfactorily after six weeks to two or three different antipsychotics) in 20% of people. Clozapine is an effective treatment for those who respond poorly to other drugs ("treatment-resistant" or "refractory" schizophrenia), but it has the potentially serious side effect of agranulocytosis (lowered white blood cell count) in less than 4% of people.

Most people on antipsychotics get side effects. People on typical antipsychotics tend to have a higher rate of extrapyramidal side effects while some atypicals are associated with considerable weight gain, diabetes and risk of metabolic syndrome; this is most pronounced with olanzapine, while risperidone and quetiapine are also associated with weight gain. Risperidone has a similar rate of extrapyramidal symptoms to haloperidol.

Bouffée délirante is a culture-bound syndrome in West Africa and Haiti of a sudden outburst of aggression, confusion and psychomotor excitement, possibly including visual or auditory hallucinations and paranoia.

Hypomania (literally "under mania" or "less than mania") is a mood state characterized by persistent disinhibition and elevation (euphoria). It may involve irritation, but less severely than full mania. According to DSM-V criteria, hypomania is distinct from mania in that there is no significant functional impairment; mania, by DSM-V definition, does include significant functional impairment and may have psychotic features.

Characteristic behaviors of persons experiencing hypomania are a notable decrease in the need for sleep, an overall increase in energy, unusual behaviors and actions, and a markedly distinctive increase in talkativeness and confidence, commonly exhibited with a flight of creative ideas. Other symptoms related to this may include feelings of grandiosity, distractibility, and hypersexuality. While hypomanic behavior often generates productivity and excitement, it can become troublesome if the subject engages in risky or otherwise inadvisable behaviors, and/or the symptoms manifest themselves in trouble with everyday life events. When manic episodes are separated into stages of a progression according to symptomatic severity and associated features, hypomania constitutes the first stage of the syndrome, wherein the cardinal features (euphoria or heightened irritability, pressure of speech and activity, increased energy, decreased need for sleep, and flight of ideas) are most plainly evident.

"Early onset schizophrenia" (EOS) is not childhood schizophrenia, because this term is used to identify adolescence patients who develop first episode of psychosis before the age of 18. Childhood schizophrenia manifests before the age of 13, so it's correct names are "childhood-onset schizophrenia" (COS) and "very early-onset schizophrenia" (VEOS).

Adolescents (teenagers) are persons between the ages of 13 and 18. Children are defined as persons under the age of 13, so the term "early onset schizophrenia" (EOS) is not not appropriate in the article about childhood schizophrenia.

Current methods in treating early-onset schizophrenia follow a similar approach to the treatment of adult schizophrenia. Although modes of treatment in this population is largely understudied, the use of antipsychotic medication is commonly the first line of treatment in addressing symptoms. Recent literature has failed to determine if typical or atypical antipsychotics are most effective in reducing symptoms and improving outcomes. When weighing treatment options, it is necessary to consider the adverse effects of various medications used to treat schizophrenia and the potential implications of these effects on development. A 2013 systematic review compared the efficacy of atypical antipsychotics versus typical antipsychotics for adolescents:

Madaan et al. wrote that studies report efficacy of typical neuroleptics such as thioridazine, thiothixene, loxapine and haloperidol, high incidence of side effects such as extrapyramidal symptoms, akathisia, dystonias, sedation, elevated prolactin, tardive dyskinesia.

In the ICD-10, Bouffée délirante is classified as a subtype of either Acute polymorphic psychotic disorder without symptoms of schizophrenia (F23.0) or Acute polymorphic psychotic disorder with symptoms of schizophrenia (F23.1).

"Bouffée délirante" literally means a "delirious flash".

Often, apathy is felt after witnessing horrific acts, such as the killing or maiming of people during a war, e.g. posttraumatic stress disorder. It is also known to be a distinct psychiatric syndrome that is associated with many conditions, some of which are: CADASIL syndrome, depression, Alzheimer's disease, Chagas disease, Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease, dementia (and dementias such as Alzheimer's disease, vascular dementia, and frontotemporal dementia), Korsakoff's syndrome, excessive vitamin D, hypothyroidism, hyperthyroidism, general fatigue, Huntington's disease, Pick's disease, progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP), brain damage, schizophrenia, schizoid personality disorder, bipolar disorder, autism, ADHD, Asperger's syndrome, and others. Some medications and the heavy use of drugs such as opiates or GABA-ergic drugs may bring apathy as a side effect.

According to the Mayo Clinic, it is best to start receiving treatment for paranoid schizophrenia as early as possible and to maintain the treatment throughout life. Continuing treatment will help keep the serious symptoms under control and allow the person to lead a more fulfilling life. This illness is typically unpreventable.

It has a strong hereditary component with a first degree parent or sibling. There is some possibility that there are environmental influences including "prenatal exposure to a viral infection, low oxygen levels during birth (from prolonged labor or premature birth), exposure to a virus during infancy, early parental loss or separation, and verbal, physical or sexual abuse in childhood". Eliminating any of these factors could help reduce an individual's future risk of developing paranoid schizophrenia.

Disorganized schizophrenia, also known as hebephrenia or hebephrenic schizophrenia, is a subtype of schizophrenia, although it is not recognized in the latest version of the "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders". It's recognized only in the 10th revision of the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD-10).

Disorganized schizophrenia is thought to be an extreme expression of the "disorganization syndrome" that has been hypothesized to be one aspect of a three-factor model of symptoms in schizophrenia, the other factors being "reality distortion" (involving delusions and hallucinations) and "psychomotor poverty" (lack of speech, lack of spontaneous movement and various aspects of blunting of emotion).

Paranoid schizophrenia is an illness that typically requires lifelong treatment with neuroleptics to allow someone to have a relatively stable and normal lifestyle. In order to be successfully treated, a person with schizophrenia should seek help from family or primary care doctors, psychiatrists, psychotherapists, pharmacists, family members, case workers, psychiatric nurses, or social workers, provided he or she is not unable to do so, due to many people with schizophrenia having the inability to accept their condition. Non-compliance with neuroleptics may also occur if the patient considers the side effects (such as extrapyramidal symptoms) to be more debilitating than the condition itself. The main options that are offered for the treatment of paranoid schizophrenia are the following: neuroleptics, psychotherapy, hospitalization, electroconvulsive therapy, and vocational skills training.

There are many different types of disorders that have similar symptoms to paranoid schizophrenia. There are tests that psychiatrists perform to achieve a correct diagnosis. They include "psychiatric evaluation, in which the doctor or psychiatrist will ask a series of questions about the patient's symptoms, psychiatric history, and family history of mental health problems; medical history and exam, in which the doctor will ask about one's personal and family health history and will also perform a complete physical examination to check for medical issues that could be causing or contributing to the problem; laboratory tests in which the doctor will order simple blood and urine tests can rule out other medical causes of symptoms".

There are side effects associated with antipsychotic medication. Neuroleptics can cause high blood pressure and high cholesterol. Many people who take them exhibit weight gain and have a higher risk of developing diabetes.

Individuals in a hypomanic state have a decreased need for sleep, are extremely outgoing and competitive, have a great deal of energy and are otherwise often fully functioning (unlike full mania).

Treatment consists of high-dose lorazepam or in some cases ECT. The response to the treatment is usually good, especially if detected early

Prevention of schizophrenia is difficult as there are no reliable markers for the later development of the disorder. There is tentative evidence for the effectiveness of early interventions to prevent schizophrenia. While there is some evidence that early intervention in those with a psychotic episode may improve short-term outcomes, there is little benefit from these measures after five years. Attempting to prevent schizophrenia in the prodrome phase is of uncertain benefit and therefore as of 2009 is not recommended. Cognitive behavioral therapy may reduce the risk of psychosis in those at high risk after a year and is recommended in this group, by the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE). Another preventative measure is to avoid drugs that have been associated with development of the disorder, including cannabis, cocaine, and amphetamines.

Oneiroid syndrome, from the Ancient Greek "" ("oneiros", meaning "dream") and "" ("eidos", meaning "form, likeness"), is dream-like fantastic derangement of consciousness with illusions and hallucinations, catatonic symptoms and kaleidoscopic quality of psychopathological experiences. It's an element of the catatonic form of schizophrenia and presents with a dream-like or nightmare-like state as a background of intensive psychopathological experiences.

Oneiroid states were first described by the German physician Wilhelm Mayer-Gross in 1924. Mayer-Gross's 1924 habilitation on "Self-descriptions of Confusional States: the Oneiroid Form of Experience" () is considered the first monograph about oneiroid state. In this monograph the psychopathological method was used (German psychiatrists called that the "phenomenological method" – phänomenologische Methode).

The oneiroid syndrome, known to European and Russian psychiatrists, but all but forgotten in the USA.

Later in 1961 the Bulgarian psychiatrist S.T. Stoyanov studied the dynamics and the course of the oneiroid syndrome in "periodic", or recurrent schizophrenia (ICD-10).

According to this research the syndrome has six stages in its course:

1. initial general-somatic and vegetative disorder

2. delusional mood

3. affective-delusional depersonalisation and derealisation

4. fantastic-delusional and affective depersonalisation and derealisation

5. illusional depersonalisation and derealisation, and

6. catatonic-oneiroid state in the culmination.

In most of the cases of the oneiroid syndrome there were crude pathological changes in the electroencephalography (EEG).

The prognosis of oneiroid catatonia is optimal, in comparison with lucid catatonia.

Various modalities of treatment, including pharmacotherapy, psychotherapy, and various other psychosocial and educational interventions, are used in the treatment of schizophreniform disorder. Pharmacotherapy is the most commonly used treatment modality as psychiatric medications can act quickly to both reduce the severity of symptoms and shorten their duration. The medications used are largely the same as those used to treat schizophrenia, with an atypical antipsychotic as the usual drug of choice. Patients who do not respond to the initial atypical antipsychotic may benefit from

being switched to another atypical antipsychotic, the addition of a mood stabilizer such as lithium or an anticonvulsant, or being switched to a typical antipsychotic.

Treatment of schizophreniform disorder can occur in inpatient, outpatient, and partial hospitalization settings. In selecting the treatment setting, the primary aims are to minimize the psychosocial consequences for the patient and maintain the safety of the patient and others. While the need to quickly stabilize the patient's symptoms almost always exists, consideration of the patient's severity of symptoms, family support, and perceived likelihood of compliance with outpatient treatment can help determine if stabilization can occur in the outpatient setting. Patients who receive inpatient treatment may benefit from a structured intermediate environment, such as a sub-acute unit, step-down unit, partial hospital, or day hospital, during the initial phases of returning to the community.

As improvement progresses during treatment, help with coping skills, problem-solving techniques, psychoeducational approaches, and eventually occupational therapy and vocational assessments are often very helpful for patients and their families. Virtually all types of individual psychotherapy are used in the treatment of schizophreniform disorder, except for insight-oriented therapies as patients often have limited insight as a symptom of their illness.

Since schizophreniform disorder has such rapid onset of severe symptoms, patients are sometimes in denial about their illness, which also would limit the efficacy of insight-oriented therapies. Supportive forms of psychotherapy such as interpersonal psychotherapy, supportive psychotherapy, and cognitive behavior therapy are particularly well suited for the treatment of the disorder. Group psychotherapy is usually not indicated for patients with schizophreniform disorder because they may be distressed by the symptoms of patients with more advanced psychotic disorders.

The primary treatment of schizophrenia is antipsychotic medications, often in combination with psychological and social supports. Hospitalization may occur for severe episodes either voluntarily or (if mental health legislation allows it) involuntarily. Long-term hospitalization is uncommon since deinstitutionalization beginning in the 1950s, although it still occurs. Community support services including drop-in centers, visits by members of a community mental health team, supported employment and support groups are common. Some evidence indicates that regular exercise has a positive effect on the physical and mental health of those with schizophrenia.

Catalepsy is a symptom of certain nervous disorders or conditions such as Parkinson's disease and epilepsy. It is also a characteristic symptom of cocaine withdrawal, as well as one of the features of catatonia. It can be caused by schizophrenia treatment with anti-psychotics, such as haloperidol, and by the anesthetic ketamine. Protein kinase A has been suggested as a mediator of cataleptic behavior.

Schizophreniform disorder is equally prevalent among men and women. The most common ages of onset are 18–24 for men and 18–35 for women. While the symptoms of schizophrenia often develop gradually over a period of years, the diagnostic criteria for schizophreniform disorder require a much more rapid onset.

Available evidence suggests variations in incidence across sociocultural settings. In the United States and other developed countries, the incidence is low, possibly fivefold less than that of schizophrenia. In developing countries, the incidence is substantially higher, especially for the subtype "With Good Prognostic Features". In some of these settings schizophreniform disorder may be as common as schizophrenia.

The exact incidence and prevalence of brief psychotic disorder is not known, but it is generally considered uncommon. Internationally, it occurs twice as often in women than men, and even more often in women in the United States. It typically occurs in the late 30s and early 40s. The exact cause of brief psychotic disorder is not known. One theory suggests a genetic link, because the disorder is more common in people who have family members with mood disorders, such as depression or bipolar disorder. Another theory suggests that the disorder is caused by poor coping skills, as a defense against or escape from a particularly frightening or stressful situation. These factors may create a vulnerability to develop brief psychotic disorder. In most cases, the disorder is triggered by a major stress or traumatic event. Childbirth may trigger the disorder in some women. Approximately 1 in 10,000 women experience brief psychotic disorder shortly after childbirth. There are general medical causes of brief psychosis that should also be considered when being evaluated. Post-natal depression, HIV and AIDS, malaria, syphilis, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, hypoglycaemia (an abnormally low level of glucose in the blood), lupus, multiple sclerosis, brain tumor and PANS.

In the 19th century the psychiatrist Karl Ludwig Kahlbaum observed several symptoms of the disorder. Among them were stupor, mutism, excitement, hyperactivity, posing, negativism, rigidity, waxy flexibility and automatic obedience, stereotypies, tics, grimacing, echo-phenomenon, and self-harming.

Also marbling of the skin, profuse sweating, deviation of the pupils and odd reaction to light were considered catatonic phenomenons.

During most of the 20th century catatonia was regarded as schizophrenic in its nature, but towards the end of the century it was more commonly observed in those with bipolar disorder and autism spectrum disorder. Now only 15 percent of those with catatonia are considered to have schizophrenia.

Apathy affects nearly 50–70 percent of individuals with Alzheimer's disease. It is a neuropsychiatric symptom of Alzheimer's associated with functional impairment. There are two main causes of apathy that have been recognized in patients with Alzheimer's. First, dysfunction in frontal systems of the brain is thought to be an important neurobiological basis for the onset of apathy. Second, the neuropathological changes associated with dementia, and therefore Alzheimer's, may also result in apathy. Cholinesterase inhibitors, used as the first line of treatment for the cognitive symptoms associated with dementia, have also shown some modest benefit for behavior disturbances such as apathy. Methylphenidate has been the most widely studied drug for the treatment of apathy in dementia. Management of apathetic symptoms using methylphenidate have shown promise in randomized placebo controlled trials of Alzheimer's patients. A phase III multi-centered randomized placebo-controlled trial of methylphenidate for the treatment of apathy is currently underway and planned for completion in August 2020.