Compared to other breeds of dog, Scottish terriers have a much increased risk of developing transitional cell carcinoma.

Tobacco smoking is the main known contributor to urinary bladder cancer; in most populations, smoking is associated with over half of bladder cancer cases in men and one-third of cases among women, however these proportions have reduced over recent years since there are fewer smokers in Europe and North America. There is an almost linear relationship between smoking duration (in years), pack years and bladder cancer risk. A risk plateau at smoking about 15 cigarettes a day can be observed (meaning that those who smoke 15 cigarettes a day are approximately at the same risk as those smoking 30 cigarettes a day). Quitting smoking reduces the risk, however former smokers will most likely always be at a higher risk of bladder cancer compared to never smokers. Passive smoking has not been proven to be involved.

Thirty percent of bladder tumors probably result from occupational exposure in the workplace to carcinogens such as benzidine. 2-Naphthylamine, which is found in cigarette smoke, has also been shown to increase bladder cancer risk. Occupations at risk are bus drivers, rubber workers, motor mechanics, leather (including shoe) workers, blacksmiths, machine setters, and mechanics. Hairdressers are thought to be at risk as well because of their frequent exposure to permanent hair dyes.

In addition to these major risk factors there are also numerous other modifiable factors that are less strongly (i.e. 10–20% risk increase) associated with bladder cancer, for example, obesity. Although these could be considered as minor effects, risk reduction in the general population could still be achieved by reducing the prevalence of a number of smaller risk factor together.

It has been suggested that mutations at HRAS, KRAS2, RB1, and FGFR3 may be associated in some cases.

Because most bladder cancers are invasive into the bladder wall, surgical removal is usually not possible. The majority of transitional cell carcinomas are treated with either traditional chemotherapy or nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs.

A 2008 study commissioned by the World Health Organisation concluded that "specific fruit and vegetables may act to reduce the risk of bladder cancer." Fruit and yellow-orange vegetables, particularly carrots and those containing selenium, are probably associated with a moderately reduced risk of bladder cancer. Citrus fruits and cruciferous vegetables were also identified as having a possibly protective effect. However an analysis of 47,909 men in the Health Professionals Follow-Up Study showed little correlation between cancer reduction and high consumption of fruits and vegetables overall, or yellow or green leafy vegetables specifically, compared to the statistically significant reduction among those men who consumed large amounts of cruciferous vegetables.

In a 10-year study involving almost 49,000 men, researchers found that men who drank at least 1,44 L of water (around 6 cups) per day had a significantly reduced incidence of bladder cancer when compared with men who drank less. It was also found that: "the risk of bladder cancer decreased by 7% for every 240 mL of fluid added". The authors proposed that bladder cancer might partly be caused by the bladder directly contacting carcinogens that are excreted in urine, although this has not yet been confirmed in other studies.

Aggressive surgical removal of the tumor and any enlarged sublumbar lymph nodes is essential for treatment of the tumor and associated hypercalcaemia. There is a high recurrence rate, although removal of lymph nodes with metastasis may improve survival time. Radiation therapy and chemotherapy may be helpful in treatment. Severe hypercalcaemia is treated with aggressive IV fluid therapy using sodium chloride and medications such as loop diuretics (increased kidney excretion of calcium) and aminobisphosphonates (decreased calcium release from bones). A poorer prognosis is associated with large tumor size (greater than 10 cm), hypercalcaemia, and distante metastasis. Early, incidental diagnosis of small anal sac masses may lead to a better prognosis with surgery alone (ongoing study).

Treatments of cancer in cats usually consists of diagnosis and observation of the tumor to determine its type and size, the development of a treatment plan, the associated goals on the part of the treatment methods, and the regular evaluation of the overall health of the pet.

The prevention of feline cancer mainly depends on the cat's diet and lifestyle, as well as an ability to detect early signs and symptoms of cancer prior to advancement to a further stage. If cancer is detected at an earlier stage, it has a higher chance of being treated, therefore lessening the chances of fatality. Taking domesticated cats for regular checkups to the veterinarian can help spot signs and symptoms of cancer early on and help maintain a healthy lifestyle. Further, due to advancements in research, prevention of certain types of feline illnesses remains possible. A widely known preventative of feline leukemia virus is the vaccine which was created in 1969. Subsequently, an immunofloures-cent antibody (IFA) test for the detection of FeLV in the blood of infected cats was formulated. The IFA test was mainly used to experiment the chances of felines being exposed to cancer. The results showed that 33% of cats who were exposed to FeLV related diseases were at a higher risk for acquiring it, while the cats that were left unexposed were left unaffected. FeLV is either spread through contagion or infection and once infected it is possible for cats to stay that way for the rest of their lives.

Interaction with other Cats

Interaction with other cats with strains or diseases related to FeLV can be a great risk factor for cats attaining FeLV themselves. Therefore, a main factor in prevention is keeping the affected cats in quarantine from the unaffected cats. Stray cats, or indoor/outdoor cats have been shown to be at a greater risk for acquiring FeLV, since they have a greater chance of interacting with other cats. Domesticated cats that are kept indoors are the least vulnerable to susceptible diseases.

Vaccines

Vaccines help the immune system fight off disease causing organisms, which is another key to prevention. However, vaccines can also cause tumors if not given properly. Vaccines should be given in the right rear leg to ease tumor removal process. Vaccines given in the neck or in between the shoulder blades are most likely to cause tumors and are difficult to remove, which can be fatal to cats. Reducing the number of vaccinations given to a cat may also decrease the risk for it developing a tumor.

Spaying and Neutering

Spaying and neutering holds many advantages to cats, including lowering the risk for developing cancer. Neutering male cats makes them less subjected to testicular cancer, FeLV, and FIV. Spaying female cats lowers the risk for mammary cancer, ovarian, or uterine cancer, as it prevents them from going into heat. Female cats should be spayed before their first heat, as each cycle of heat creates a greater risk for mammary cancer. Spaying a female cat requires the removal of the ovaries and uterus, which would eliminate their chances of developing cancer in these areas.

Exposure to Sun

The risk of skin cancer increases when a cat is exposed to direct sunlight for prolonged periods. White cats, or cats with white faces and ears, should not be allowed out on sunny days. Between the hours of 10:00 am to 4:00 pm, it is recommended to keep domesticated cats indoors, as the sun is at its highest peak between these times. Sun block is also available for cats, which can help prevent skin irritation, and a veterinarian should be contacted to find out which brands are appropriate and to use on cats.

Exposure to Secondhand Smoke

Cats living in a smoker’s household are three times more likely to develop lymphoma. Compared to living in a smoke-free environment, cats exposed to secondhand smoke also have a greater chance of developing squamous cell carcinoma or mouth cancer. Cancer is also developed mostly due to the cat's grooming habits. As cats lick themselves while they groom, they increase chances of taking in the toxic, cancer-causing carcinogens that gather on their fur, which are then exposed to their mucus membranes.

Lifestyle

Providing a cat with the healthiest lifestyle possible is the key to prevention. Decreasing the amount of toxins, including household cleaning products, providing fresh and whole foods, clean and purified water, and reducing the amount of indoor pollution can help cats live a longer and healthier life. To lessen susceptibility to diseases, domesticated cats should be kept inside the household for most of their lives to reduce the risk of interacting with other stray cats that could be infected with diseases.

Treatment options vary and depend on the type and stage of cancer. Common treatments include surgery, chemotherapy, radiation therapy, amputation, and immunotherapy. A combination of therapies may be used. Knowledge and treatment of cancer have increased significantly in the past three decades. Survival rates have also increased due to the increase prevalence of canine cancer treatment centers and breakthroughs in targeted drug development. Canine cancer treatment has become an accepted clinical practice and access to treatment for owners has widely expanded recently. Cancer-targeting drugs most commonly function to inhibit excessive cell proliferation by attacking the replicating cells. However, there is still a prevalent pharmacy gap in veterinary oncology.

There is one canine tumor vaccine approved by the USDA, for preventing canine melanoma. The Oncept vaccine activates T-cell responses and antibodies against tumor-specific tyrosinase proteins. There is limited information about canine tumor antigens, which is the reason for the lack of tumor-specific vaccines and immunotherapy treatment plans for dogs.

Success of treatment depends on the form and extent of the cancer and the aggressiveness of the therapy. Early detection offers the best chance for successful treatment. The heterogeneity of tumors makes drug development increasingly complex, especially as new causes are discovered. No cure for cancer in canines exist.

Some dog owners opt for no treatment of the cancer at all, in which case palliative care, including pain relief, may be offered. Regardless of how treatment proceeds following a diagnosis, the quality of life of the pet is an important consideration. In cases where the cancer is not curable, there are still many things which can be done to alleviate the dog's pain. Good nutrition and care from the dog's owner can greatly enhance quality of life.

Breeds that may be more commonly affected include the English Cocker Spaniel, German Shepherd Dog, Alaskan Malamute, Dachshund, and Springer Spaniel. It is a disease of middle-age to older dogs and even though early reports described spayed females as more commonly affected, multiple recents studies have shown no gender overrepresentation.

Surgical treatment remains the treatment of choice for cats and dogs diagnosed with intestinal tumors who are in otherwise good health.

Cancer prevalence in dogs increases with age and certain breeds are more susceptible to specific kinds of cancers. Millions of dogs develop spontaneous tumors each year. Boxers, Boston Terriers and Golden Retrievers are among the breeds that most commonly develop mast cell tumors. Large and giant breeds, like Great Danes, Rottweilers, Greyhound and Saint Bernards, are much more likely to develop bone cancer than smaller breeds. Lymphoma occurs at increased rates in Bernese Mountain dogs, bulldogs, and boxers. It is important for the owner to be familiar with the diseases to which their specific breed of dog might have a breed predisposition.

New vaccine protocols have been put forth by the American Association of Feline Practitioners that limit type and frequency of vaccinations given to cats. Specifically, the vaccine for feline leukemia virus should only be given to kittens and high risk cats. Feline rhinotracheitis/panleukopenia/calicivirus vaccines should be given as kittens, a year later and then every three years. Also, vaccines should be given in areas making removal of VAS easier, namely: as close as possible to the tip of the right rear paw for rabies, the tip of the left rear paw for feline leukemia (unless combined with rabies), and on the right shoulder—being careful to avoid the midline or interscapular space—for other vaccines (such as FVRCP). There have been no specific associations between development of VAS and vaccine brand or manufacturer, concurrent infections, history of trauma, or environment.

Surgical treatment is recommended for cats and dogs diagnosed with primary liver tumors but not metastasis to the liver. There are not many treatment options for animals who have multiple liver lobes affected.

The specific treatment will depend on the tumor's type, location, size, and whether the cancer has spread to other organs. Surgical removal of the tumor remains the standard treatment of choice, but additional forms of therapy such as radiation therapy, chemotherapy, or immunotherapy exist.

When detected early, skin cancer in cats and dogs can often be treated successfully. In many cases, a biopsy can remove the whole tumor, as long as the healthy tissues removed from just outside the tumor area do not contain any cancer cells.

The average age at which intestinal tumors are diagnosed ranges between 10–12 years for cats and 6 to 9 years for dogs. There are many different types of intestinal tumors, including lymphoma, adenocarcinoma, mast cell tumor, and leiomyosarcoma.

Treatment of VAS is through aggressive surgery. As soon as the tumor is recognized, it should be removed with very wide margins to ensure complete removal. Treatment may also include chemotherapy or radiation therapy. The most significant prognostic factor is initial surgical treatment. One study showed that cats with radical (extensive) initial surgery had a median time to recurrence of 325 days versus 79 days for cats with marginal initial excision. The expression of a mutated form of p53, a tumor suppressor gene, is found commonly in VAS and indicates a poorer prognosis.

Treatment includes chemotherapy and, where practical, removal of the tumor with the affected organ, such as with a splenectomy. Splenectomy alone gives an average survival time of 1–3 months. The addition of chemotherapy, primarily comprising the drug doxorubicin, alone or in combination with other drugs, can increase the average survival time to 2-4 months, or more.

A more favorable outcome has been demonstrated in recent research conducted at University of Pennsylvania Veterinary School, in dogs treated with a compound derived from the Coriolus versicolor (commonly known as "Turkey Tail") mushroom:

“We were shocked,” Cimino Brown said. “Prior to this, the longest reported median survival time of dogs with hemangiosarcoma of the spleen that underwent no further treatment was 86 days. We had dogs that lived beyond a year with nothing other than this mushroom as treatment.”There were not statistically significant differences in survival between the three dosage groups, though the longest survival time was highest in the 100 mg group, at 199 days, eclipsing the previously reported survival time.

The results were so surprising, in fact, that the researchers asked Penn Vet pathologists to recheck the dogs’ tissue biopsies to make sure that the dogs really had the disease.

“They reread the samples and said, yes, it’s really hemangiosarcoma,” Cimino Brown said.

Chemotherapy is available for treating hemangiosarcoma, but many owners opt not to pursue that treatment once their dog is diagnosed.

“It doesn’t hugely increase survival, it’s expensive and it means a lot of back and forth to the vet for the dog,” Cimino Brown said. “So you have to figure in quality of life.”

This treatment does not always work. So, one should always be prepared for their pet to have the same survival time as a dog who is untreated.

Visceral hemangiosarcoma is usually fatal even with treatment, and usually within weeks or, at best, months. In the skin, it can be cured in most cases with complete surgical removal as long as there is not visceral involvement.

Mammary tumors are the third most common neoplasia in cats, following lymphoid and skin cancers. The incidence of mammary tumors in cats is reduced by 91 percent in cats spayed prior to six months of age and by 86 percent in cats spayed prior to one year, according to one study. Siamese cats and Japanese breeds seem to have increased risk, and obesity also appears to be a factor in tumor development. Malignant tumors make up 80 to 96 percent of mammary tumors in cats, almost all adenocarcinomas. Male cats may also develop mammary adenocarcinoma, albeit rarely, and the clinical course is similar to female cats. As in dogs, tumor size is an important prognostic factor, although for tumors less than three centimeters the individual size is less predictive. According to one study, cats with tumors less than three cm had an average survival time of 21 months, and cats with tumors greater than three cm had an average survival of 12 months. About 10 percent of cat mammary tumors have estrogen receptors, so spaying at the time of surgery has little effect on recurrence or survival time. Metastasis tends to be to the lungs and lymph nodes, and rarely to bone. Diagnosis and treatment is similar to the dog. There is a better prognosis with bilateral radical surgery (removing the both mammary chains) than with more conservative surgery. Doxorubicin has shown some promise in treatment.

Most mammary tumors in rats are benign fibroadenomas, which are also the most common tumor in the rat. Less than 10 percent are adenocarcinomas. They occur in male and female rats. The tumors can be large and occur anywhere on the trunk. There is a good prognosis with surgery. Spayed rats have a decreased risk of developing mammary tumors.

Many types of skin tumors, both benign (noncancerous) and malignant (cancerous), exist. Approximately 20-40% of primary skin tumors are malignant in dogs and 50-65%

are malignant in cats. Not all forms of skin cancer in cats and dogs are caused by sun exposure, but it can happen occasionally. On dogs, the nose and pads of the feet contain sensitive skin and no fur to protect from the sun. Also, cats and dogs with thin or light-colored coats are at a higher risk of sun damage over their entire bodies.

Tumors that develop within the liver may be either benign (noncancerous) or malignant (cancerous). Tumors can start in the liver, or spread to the liver from another cancer in the body. Malignant liver tumors have been reported to metastasize to other organs such as regional lymph nodes, lungs, kidneys, pancreas, spleen and others.

A perianal gland tumor is a type of tumor found near the anus in dogs that arises from specialized glandular tissue found in the perineum. Perianal glands do not exist in cats. It is also known as a hepatoid tumor because of the similarity in cell shape to hepatocytes (liver cells). It is most commonly seen in intact (not neutered) dogs and is the third most common tumor type in intact male dogs. There are two types of perianal gland tumors, perianal gland adenomas, which are benign, and perianal gland adenocarcinomas, which are malignant. Both have receptors for testosterone. Perianal gland adenomas are three times more likely to be found in intact male dogs than females, and perianal gland adenocarcinomas are ten times more common in male dogs than females. The most commonly affected breeds for adenomas are the Siberian Husky, Cocker Spaniel, Pekingese, and Samoyed; for adenocarcinomas the most commonly affected breeds are the Siberian Husky, Bulldog, and Alaskan Malamute.

Perianal gland tumors are located most commonly in the skin around the anus, but can also be found on the tail or groin. Adenomas are more common, making up 91 percent of perianal gland tumors in one study. Adenomas and adenocarcinomas look alike, both being round, pink and usually less than three centimeters in width. Adenocarcinomas are more likely to be multiple and invasive into the underlying tissue, and they can metastasize to the lymph nodes, liver, and lungs.

Both types should be removed and sent to a pathologist for identification. However, 95 percent of perianal gland adenomas will disappear after neutering the dog. Removing the tumor and neutering the dog at the same time will help prevent recurrence. Dogs with perianal gland adenocarcinomas should be treated with aggressive surgery and the radiation therapy and chemotherapy if necessary.

The prognosis for DSRCT remains poor. Prognosis depends upon the stage of the cancer. Because the disease can be misdiagnosed or remain undetected, tumors frequently grow large within the abdomen and metastasize or seed to other parts of the body.

There is no known organ or area of origin. DSRCT can metastasize through lymph nodes or the blood stream. Sites of metastasis include the spleen, diaphragm, liver, large and small intestine, lungs, central nervous system, bones, uterus, bladder, genitals, abdominal cavity, and the brain.

A multi-modality approach of high-dose chemotherapy, aggressive surgical resection, radiation, and stem cell rescue improves survival for some patients. Reports have indicated that patients will initially respond to first line chemotherapy and treatment but that relapse is common.

Some patients in remission or with inoperable tumor seem to benefit from long term low dose chemotherapy, turning DSRCT into a chronic disease.

The Stehlin Foundation currently offers DSRCT patients the opportunity to send samples of their tumors free of charge for testing. Research scientists are growing the samples on nude mice and testing various chemical agents to find which are most effective against the individual's tumor.

Patients with advanced DSRCT may qualify to participate in clinical trials that are researching new drugs to treat the disease.

Depending on the pet's unique condition, there are several treatment options, including surgery, chemotherapy and radiation therapy. Treating the pain adequately is also of crucial importance to improve the pet's quality of life, especially if amputation is not performed.