Bone mineral density decreases with increasing age. Osteoporotic bone loss can be prevented through an adequate intake of vitamin C and vitamin D, coupled with exercise and by being a non-smoker. A study by Cheng et al. in 1997, showed that greater bone density indicated less risk for fractures in the calcaneus.

An effective rehabilitation program reduces the chances of reinjury and of other knee-related problems such as patellofemoral pain syndrome and osteoarthritis. Rehabilitation focuses on maintaining strength and range of motion to reduce pain and maintain the health of the muscles and tissues around the knee joint.

The treatment of FAI varies. Conservative treatment includes reducing levels of physical activity, anti-inflammatory medication and physiotherapy. Physical therapy may optimize alignment and mobility of the joint, thereby decreasing excessive forces on irritable or weakened tissues. It may also identify specific movement patterns that may be causing injury.

Due to the frequency of diagnosis in adolescents and young adults, various surgical techniques have been developed with the goal of preserving the hip joint. Surgery may be arthroscopic or open, peri-acetabular or rotational osteotomies being two common open surgical techniques employed when an abnormal angle between femur and acetabulum has been demonstrated. These primarily aim to alter the angle of the hip socket in such a way that contact between the acetabulum and femoral head are greatly reduced, allowing a greater range of movement. Femoral sculpting may be performed simultaneously, if required for a better overall shape of the hip joint. It is unclear whether or not these interventions effectively delay or prevent the onset of arthritis. Well designed, long term studies evaluating the efficacy of these treatments have not been done.

A 2011 study analyzing current surgical methods for management of symptomatic femoral acetabular impingement (FAI), suggested that arthroscopic method had surgical outcomes equal to or better than other methods with a lower rate of major complications when performed by experienced surgeons.

According to the posterior cruciate ligament injuries only account for 1.5 percent of all knee injuries (figure 2). If it is a single injury to the posterior cruciate ligament that requires surgery only accounted for 1.1 percent compared to all other cruciate surgeries but when there was multiple injuries to the knee the posterior cruciate ligament accounted for 1.2 percent of injuries.

The treatment of Pilon fractures depends on the extent of the injury. This includes the involvement of other bones such as the fibula and the talus, involvement of soft tissue, and the fracture pattern. Treatment strategies and fixation methods used include internal and external fixation, as well as staged approaches, with the aim of reducing the fracture, reconstructing the involved bones and restoration of articular surface congruence, with minimal insult to soft tissues. Appropriate wound management is important to reduce the high rate of infectious complications and secondary wound healing problems associated with open Pilon fractures. Vacuum-assisted wound closure therapy and using a "staged protocol" (awaiting soft-tissue recovery before extensive reconstructive efforts) may play a positive role.

This method is indicated for cases when open reduction and internal fixation is unlikely to be successful. For example: extensive comminutions, elderly patients with osteoporotic bone, and small or non-union fractures.

Two types of treatment options are typically available:

- Surgery

- Conservative treatment (rehabilitation and physical therapy)

Surgery may impede normal growth of structures in the knee, so doctors generally do not recommend knee operations for young people who are still growing. There are also risks of complications, such as an adverse reaction to anesthesia or an infection.

When designing a rehabilitation program, clinicians consider associated injuries such as chipped bones or soft tissue tears. Clinicians take into account the person's age, activity level, and time needed to return to work and/or athletics. Doctors generally only recommend surgery when other structures in the knee have sustained severe damage, or specifically when there is:

- Concurrent osteochondral injury

- Continued gross instability

- Palpable disruption of the medial patellofemoral ligament and the vastus medialis obliquus

- High-level athletic demands coupled with mechanical risk factors and an initial injury mechanism not related to contact

Supplements like glucosamine and NSAIDs can be used to minimize bothersome symptoms.

Treatment options for distal radius fractures include non-operative management, external fixation, and internal fixation. Indications for each depend on a variety of factors such as patient's age, initial fracture displacement, and metaphyseal and articular alignment, with the ultimate goal to maximize strength, and function in the affected upper extremity. Surgeons use these factors combined with radiologic imaging to predict fracture instability, and functional outcome in order to help decide which approach would be most appropriate. Treatment is often directed to restore normal anatomy to avoid the possibility of malunion, which may cause decreased strength in the hand and wrist. The decision to pursue a specific type of management varies greatly by geography, physician specialty (hand surgeons vs. orthopedic surgeons), and advancements in new technology such as the volar locking plating system.

Single intramedullary screws can be used to treat simple transverse or oblique fractures. Plates can be used for all proximal ulna fracture types including Monteggia fractures, and comminuted fractures.

Supracondylar humerus fractures account for 55%-75% of all elbow fractures. They most commonly occur in children between ages 5–8, because remodeling of bone in this age group causes a decreased supracondylar anteroposterior diameter.

Knee injuries are very common among athletes as well as regular active people and can always be prevented. Ligament tears account for more than forty percent of knee injuries and the posterior cruciate ligament is considered one of the less common injuries. Although it is less common, there are still important measures that can be taken in order to prevent this type of knee injury. Maintaining proper exercise and sport technique is crucial for injury prevention, which include not exceeding the body or not going over the proper range of motion of the knee, properly warming up and cooling down

Calcaneal fractures are often attributed to shearing stress adjoined with compressive forces combined with a rotary direction (Soeur, 1975). These forces are typically linked to injuries in which an individual falls from a height, involvement in an automobile accident, or muscular stress where the resulting forces can lead to the trauma of fracture. Overlooked aspects of what can lead to a calcaneal fracture are the roles of osteoporosis and diabetes.

Unfortunately, the prevention of falls and automobile accidents is limited and applies to unique circumstances that should be avoided. The risk of muscular stress fractures can be reduced through stretching and weight-bearing exercise, such as strength training. In addition, footwear can influence forces that may cause a calcaneal fracture and can prevent them as well. A 2012 study conducted by Salzler showed that the increasing trend toward minimalist footwear or running barefoot can lead to a variety of stress fractures including that of the calcaneus.

Treatment is aimed at achieving a stable, aligned, mobile and painless joint and to minimize the risk of post-traumatic osteoarthritis. To achieve this operative or non-operative treatment plans are considered by physicians based on criteria such as patient characteristics, severity, risk of complications, fracture depression and displacement, degree of injury to ligaments and menisci, vascular and neurological compromise.

For early management, traction should be performed early in ward. It can either be Skin Traction or Skeletal Traction. Depends on the body weight of patient and stability of the joint. Schantz pin insertion over the Calcaneum should be done from Medial to lateral side.

Later when condition is stable. Definitive plan would be Buttress Plating and Lag Screw fixation.

The hip should be reduced as quickly as possible to reduce the risk of osteonecrosis of the femoral head. This is done via inline manual traction with general anesthesia and muscle relaxation, or conscious sedation. Fractures of the femoral head and other loose bodies should be determined prior to reduction. Common closed reduction methods include the Allis method and Stimson method. Once reduction is completed management becomes less urgent and appropriate workup including CT scanning can be completed. Post-reduction, patients may begin early crutch-assisted ambulation with weight bearing as tolerated.

Tear of a meniscus is a common injury in many sports. The menisci hold 30–50% of the body load in standing position. Some sports where a meniscus tear is common are American football, association football, ice hockey and tennis. Regardless of what the activity is, it is important to take the correct precautions to prevent a meniscus tear from happening.

The disease can be treated with external in-situ pinning or open reduction and pinning. Consultation with an orthopaedic surgeon is necessary to repair this problem. Pinning the unaffected side prophylactically is not recommended for most patients, but may be appropriate if a second SCFE is very likely.

Once SCFE is suspected, the patient should be non-weight bearing and remain on strict bed rest. In severe cases, after enough rest the patient may require physical therapy to regain strength and movement back to the leg. A SCFE is an orthopaedic emergency, as further slippage may result in occlusion of the blood supply and avascular necrosis (risk of 25 percent). Almost all cases require surgery, which usually involves the placement of one or two pins into the femoral head to prevent further slippage. The recommended screw placement is in the center of the epiphysis and perpendicular to the physis. Chances of a slippage occurring in the other hip are 20 percent within 18 months of diagnosis of the first slippage and consequently the opposite unaffected femur may also require pinning.

The risk of reducing this fracture includes the disruption of the blood supply to the bone. It has been shown in the past that attempts to correct the slippage by moving the head back into its correct position can cause the bone to die. Therefore the head of the femur is usually pinned 'as is'. A small incision is made in the outer side of the upper thigh and metal pins are placed through the femoral neck and into the head of the femur. A dressing covers the wound.

In general, SCFE is caused by increased force applied across the epiphysis, or a decrease in the resistance within the physis to shearing. No single cause accounts for SCFEs, as several factors play a role in the development of a SCFE, particularly mechanical and endocrine (hormone-related) factors. Mechanical risk factors include obesity, coxa profunda, femoral or acetabular retroversion. Obesity is the most significant risk factor. In 65 percent of cases of SCFE, the person is over the 95th percentile for weight. Common misconception is heredity. Majority of cause is due to being overweight. Endocrine diseases also contribute, such as hypothyroidism, hypopituitarism, and renal osteodystrophy.

If the dislocated hip cannot be reduced by manipulation alone, an immediate open (surgical) reduction is necessary. A CT scan or Judet views should be obtained prior to transfer to the surgical suite.

One of the main ways to prevent OSD is to check the participant's flexibility in their quadriceps and hamstrings. Lack of flexibility in these muscles can be direct risk indicator for OSD. Muscles can shorten, which can cause pain but this is not permanent. Stretches can help reduce shortening of the muscles. The main stretches for prevention of OSD focus on the hamstrings and quadriceps.

Women in sports such as association football, basketball, and tennis are significantly more prone to ACL injuries than men. The discrepancy has been attributed to gender differences in anatomy, general muscular strength, reaction time of muscle contraction and coordination, and training techniques.

Gender differences in ACL injury rates become evident when specific sports are compared. A review of NCAA data has found relative rates of injury per 1000 athlete exposures as follows:

- Men's basketball 0.07, women's basketball 0.23

- Men's lacrosse 0.12, women's lacrosse 0.17

- Men's football 0.09, women's football 0.28

The highest rate of ACL injury in women occurred in gymnastics, with a rate of injury per 1000 athlete exposures of 0.33

Of the four sports with the highest ACL injury rates, three were women's – gymnastics, basketball and soccer.

According to recent studies, female athletes are two to eight times more likely to strain their anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) in sports that involve cutting and jumping as compared to men who play the same particular sports (soccer, basketball, and volleyball). Differences between males and females identified as potential causes are the active muscular protection of the knee joint, the greater Q angle putting more medial torque on the knee joint, relative ligament laxity caused by differences in hormonal activity from estrogen and relaxin, intercondylar notch dimensions, and muscular strength.

The condition is usually self-limiting and is caused by stress on the patellar tendon that attaches the quadriceps muscle at the front of the thigh to the tibial tuberosity. Following an adolescent growth spurt, repeated stress from contraction of the quadriceps is transmitted through the patellar tendon to the immature tibial tuberosity. This can cause multiple subacute avulsion fractures along with inflammation of the tendon, leading to excess bone growth in the tuberosity and producing a visible lump which can be very painful, especially when hit. Activities such as kneeling may also irritate the tendon.

The syndrome may develop without trauma or other apparent cause; however, some studies report up to 50% of patients relate a history of precipitating trauma. Several authors have tried to identify the actual underlying etiology and risk factors that predispose Osgood–Schlatter disease and postulated various theories. However, currently it is widely accepted that Osgood–Schlatter disease is a traction apophysitis of the proximal tibial tubercle at the insertion of the patellar tendon caused by repetitive micro-trauma. In other

words, Osgood–Schlatter disease is an overuse injury and closely related to the physical activity of the child. It was shown that children

who actively participate in sports are affected more frequently as compared with non-participants. In a retrospective study of adolescents, old athletes actively participating in sports showed a frequency of 21% reporting the syndrome compared with only 4.5% of age-matched nonathletic controls.

The symptoms usually resolve with treatment but may recur for 12–24 months before complete resolution at skeletal maturity, when the tibial epiphysis fuses. In some cases the symptoms do not resolve until the patient is fully grown. In approximately 10% of patients the symptoms continue unabated into adulthood, despite all conservative measures.

In the absence of cartilage damage, pain at the front of the knee due to overuse can be managed with a combination of RICE (rest, ice, compression, elevation), anti-inflammatory medications, and physiotherapy.

Usually chondromalacia develops without swelling or bruising and most individuals benefit from rest and adherence to an appropriate physical therapy program. Allowing inflammation to subside while avoiding irritating activities for several weeks is followed by a gradual resumption. Cross-training activities such as swimming, strokes other than the breaststroke, can help to maintain general fitness and body composition. This is beneficial until a physical therapy program emphasizing strengthening and flexibility of the hip and thigh muscles can be undertaken. Use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory medication is also helpful to minimize the swelling amplifying patellar pain. Treatment with surgery is declining in popularity due to positive non-surgical outcomes and the relative ineffectiveness of surgical intervention.

Distal radius fractures are the most common fractures seen in adults, with incidence in females outnumbering incidence in males by a factor of 2-3. Men who sustain distal radius fractures are usually younger, generally in their fifth decade (vs. seventh decade in females). The elderly are more susceptible because of the osteopenia and osteoporosis commonly seen in this age group. The majority of these fractures are extra-articular (i.e. not involving the joint).

This is also a common injury in children which may involve the growth plate (Salter-Harris fracture).

In young adults, the injury is often severe as a greater force is necessary to produce the injury.

A 2015 Cochrane review found that available evidence for treatment options of distal femur fractures is insufficient to inform clinical practice and that there is a priority for a high-quality trial to be undertaken. Open fractures must undergo urgent surgery to clean and repair them, but closed fractures can be maintained until the patient is stable and ready for surgery.

Specific populations at high risk of primary PFPS include runners, bicyclists, basketball players, young athletes and females.